{"id":3517,"date":"2022-07-11T11:52:13","date_gmt":"2022-07-11T08:52:13","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pastfutureart.wpengine.com\/?page_id=3517"},"modified":"2025-04-01T12:11:07","modified_gmt":"2025-04-01T09:11:07","slug":"glossary","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/en\/glossary\/","title":{"rendered":"Glossary"},"content":{"rendered":"\r\n    <section class=\"hero-mixed\r\n        default-block\"\r\n             id=\"hero-mixed-block_b5a57c5fb42cbfb16d65ee0d33d96e1f\">\r\n\r\n\r\n            <div class=\"hero-mixed__title-container\">\r\n                <div class=\"hero-mixed__title\">\r\n                                            <h1 style=\"color: #ffffff\">Glossary<\/h1>\r\n                                        <div class=\"hero-mixed__bg\">\r\n                                                                            <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/themes\/past-future-art\/img\/slash.png\"\r\n                                 class=\"hero-mixed__slash-img\"\r\n                                 alt=\"Slash symbol.\">\r\n                                                \n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/10\/glossary_cover-1280x275.jpg\"\n     srcset=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/10\/glossary_cover-1280x275.jpg 1280w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/10\/glossary_cover-768x165.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/10\/glossary_cover-1536x330.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/10\/glossary_cover.jpg 1660w\"\n     sizes=\"100%\"\n         alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\">\n\n\n                    <\/div>\r\n                <\/div>\r\n            <\/div>\r\n\r\n                            <div class=\"main-container\">\r\n                    <div class=\"hero-mixed__content wysiwyg\">\r\n                        <h2>The concepts and terms used in work with the past and collective memory. We create the glossary together with experts in memory studies, history, philosophy, art history, international law and other disciplines<\/h2>\n<div id=\"gtx-trans\" style=\"position: absolute; left: -43px; top: -4.08333px;\">\n<div class=\"gtx-trans-icon\"><\/div>\n<\/div>\n                    <\/div>\r\n                <\/div>\r\n            \r\n\r\n    <\/section>\r\n\n\n\r\n<section class=\"text-default__block default-block\"\r\n         id=\"text--block_ad437e1972cb1899a9f3c7209b313472\">\r\n\r\n    <div class=\"text-container \">\r\n                <div class=\"text-default__block-grid \">\r\n\r\n                            <div class=\"text-default__content wysiwyg\">\r\n                    <p><b>What is it and what is it for?<\/b><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Glossary is a basic vocabulary which can help people without a special academic or professional background to navigate through the dominant problems and research trends in memory research. This is important because the past is often used to justify political decisions, and, regrettably, also as an instrument of manipulation. Understanding the terms used in the public discourse makes us stronger as a society.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In order to effectively work together on the difficult problems of the past, representatives of different disciplines need to have a means to check whether they understand one or another term correctly. Research of memory \u2013 is a dynamic interdisciplinary field in which specialists from different disciplines may move in their own paths. If we lack a common basic vocabulary, we are doomed to endlessly clarify concepts or argue while talking about one and the same thing.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><b>Who can use it?<\/b><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Specialists in different fields, who deal with collective memory in their own work.<br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Representatives of the state, who need to clearly formulate their messages on commemorative dates.<br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Any person that does not want to become a hostage of political manipulations.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><b>Who creates the glossary?\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">We invite experts in memory studies, history, anthropology, law, art history, political science and other disciplines to draft individual entries. Author of each text appears at the end of the entry, and a full list of authors is displayed below.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><b>How to work with the glossary?<\/b><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">If a term consists of several works (i.e. collective memory, working through the past etc) and you cannot find it according to the first letter of one first work, try looking for the term based on the first letter of other words. We also provide a Ukrainian equivalent of each term, and depending on the need \u2013 the equivalents in the original languages of the term.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">We started the glossary in 2020. Ever since, we continuously work to update and expand it.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the English language version of the glossary we provide a small selection of translated entries that shed light on how Ukrainian scholars and practitioners understand and apply these terms. To explore the glossary in full \u2013 go to the <a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/\">Ukrainian version<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n                <\/div>\r\n            \r\n            \r\n                    <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n\r\n<\/section>\r\n\r\n\n\n\r\n    <section class=\"glossary-block default-block\" id=\"glossary-terms\">\r\n        <div class=\"main-container\">\r\n            <div class=\"glossary-alpha__grid\">\r\n                \r\n                                        <div class=\"glossary-alpha__list\">\r\n                        <h4>A<\/h4>\r\n                        <ul>\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#alternate-history\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Alternate History, Ucronie, Uchronia                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#Ambicoloniality\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Ambicoloniality                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/ul>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                \r\n                                        <div class=\"glossary-alpha__list\">\r\n                        <h4>B<\/h4>\r\n                        <ul>\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#banal-evil\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Banal Evil                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/ul>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                \r\n                                        <div class=\"glossary-alpha__list\">\r\n                        <h4>C<\/h4>\r\n                        <ul>\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#collective_memory\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Collective Memory                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#collective-responsibility\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Collective Responsibility                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#colony\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Colony                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#commemoration\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Commemoration                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#communicative-memory\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Communicative Memory                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#Cross-border Politics of Memory\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Cross-border Politics of Memory                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#cultural-memory\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Cultural Memory                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/ul>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                \r\n                                        <div class=\"glossary-alpha__list\">\r\n                        <h4>D<\/h4>\r\n                        <ul>\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#dark-tourism\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Dark Tourism                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#decolonisation\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Decolonisation                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#deposit-of-memory\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Deposit of Memory                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/ul>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                \r\n                                        <div class=\"glossary-alpha__list\">\r\n                        <h4>E<\/h4>\r\n                        <ul>\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#Ecocide\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Ecocide                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#empire\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Empire                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#Exoticization\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Exoticization                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/ul>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                \r\n                                        <div class=\"glossary-alpha__list\">\r\n                        <h4>F<\/h4>\r\n                        <ul>\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#Frameworks of Memory\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Frameworks of Memory                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/ul>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                \r\n                                        <div class=\"glossary-alpha__list\">\r\n                        <h4>G<\/h4>\r\n                        <ul>\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#genocide\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Genocide                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#ghetto-parks\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Ghetto-parks, Socialist Heritage Parks                                     <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/ul>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                \r\n                                        <div class=\"glossary-alpha__list\">\r\n                        <h4>H<\/h4>\r\n                        <ul>\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#historiographic-turn-in-art \" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Historiographic Turn in Art                                     <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#holocaust-by-bullets \" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Holocaust by Bullets                                     <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/ul>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                \r\n                                        <div class=\"glossary-alpha__list\">\r\n                        <h4>L<\/h4>\r\n                        <ul>\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#language-of-memory\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Language of Memory                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#liquid-evil \" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Liquid Evil                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/ul>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                \r\n                                        <div class=\"glossary-alpha__list\">\r\n                        <h4>M<\/h4>\r\n                        <ul>\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#memorial-museum\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Memorial Museum                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#memory-entrepreneurship\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Memory Entrepreneurship                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#memory-mask\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Memory Mask                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#memory-culture\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Memory Culture                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#mockumentary\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Mockumentary                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#monumental-propaganda\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Monumental Propaganda                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/ul>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                \r\n                                        <div class=\"glossary-alpha__list\">\r\n                        <h4>P<\/h4>\r\n                        <ul>\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#politics-of-history\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Politics of History                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#politics-of-memory\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Politics of Memory, Memory Politics\u00b2                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#Portal Fantasy, Portal Travelers\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Portal Fantasy, Portal Travelers                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#postcolonial-theory\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Postcolonial Theory                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#postmemory\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Postmemory                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#public-history\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Public History                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/ul>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                \r\n                                        <div class=\"glossary-alpha__list\">\r\n                        <h4>R<\/h4>\r\n                        <ul>\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#reactive-memory \" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Reactive Memory                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#Reconciliation\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Reconciliation                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/ul>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                \r\n                                        <div class=\"glossary-alpha__list\">\r\n                        <h4>S<\/h4>\r\n                        <ul>\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#Solastalgia\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Solastalgia                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#Special Tribunal for the \u0421rime of Aggression against Ukraine\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Special Tribunal for the \u0421rime of Aggression against Ukraine                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#strategic-commemoration\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Strategic Commemoration                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/ul>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                \r\n                                        <div class=\"glossary-alpha__list\">\r\n                        <h4>T<\/h4>\r\n                        <ul>\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#tactical-commemoration\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Tactical Commemoration                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#transitional-justice\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Transitional Justice                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#transparent-evil\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Transparent Evil                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#trench-art \" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Trench Art                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#truth-commissions\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Truth Commissions                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/ul>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                \r\n                                        <div class=\"glossary-alpha__list\">\r\n                        <h4>W<\/h4>\r\n                        <ul>\r\n                            \r\n                                <li>\r\n                                    <a href=\"#Working_Through_the_Past\" class=\"scroll-link--js\">\r\n                                        Working Through the Past                                    <\/a>\r\n                                <\/li>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/ul>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                            <\/div>\r\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/section>\r\n\r\n    \r\n\n\n\r\n    <section class=\"authors-block-lg default-block\" id=\"authors-block_9b60acea319ea96224273d53a93821ef\">\r\n        <div class=\"main-container\">\r\n                            <div class=\"text-block__title\">\r\n                    <h2>AUTHORS<\/h2>\r\n                <\/div>\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list-lg authors-list-lg--portrait\">\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-lg authors-list__item-lg--portrait\">\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-photo-lg square\">\r\n                            \n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Portrait_PBaitsym-1-768x769.jpg\"\n     srcset=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Portrait_PBaitsym-1-768x769.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Portrait_PBaitsym-1-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Portrait_PBaitsym-1.jpg 1084w\"\n     sizes=\"100%\"\n         alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\">\n\n\n\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-content-lg\">\r\n                            \r\n                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-name-lg\">\r\n                                        <h4>Polina Baitsym<\/h4>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-desc-lg\">\r\n                                        <p class=\"p--sm\">Historian and curator specialising in the soviet art history, and socialist realism in Ukrainian visual arts, a PhD candidate in the Comparative history programme of the Central European University (Budapest-Vienna), co-curator of the book \u201cArt for Architecture. Ukraine. Soviet Modernist Mosaics from 1960 to 1990\u201d<\/p>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-lg authors-list__item-lg--portrait\">\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-photo-lg square\">\r\n                            \n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/04\/Svitlana_Biedarieva-768x979.jpg\"\n     srcset=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/04\/Svitlana_Biedarieva-768x979.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/04\/Svitlana_Biedarieva.jpg 902w\"\n     sizes=\"100%\"\n         alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\">\n\n\n\r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--tablet\">\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials-title\">\r\n                                        \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438 <span>\u2193<\/span>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/svitlana.biedarieva\/\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                                    <a href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/in\/svitlana-biedarieva-55828b45\/\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                LinkedIn                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-content-lg\">\r\n                            \r\n                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-name-lg\">\r\n                                        <h4>Svitlana Biedarieva<\/h4>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-desc-lg\">\r\n                                        <p class=\"p--sm\">Art historian, artist, and curator. She is the author of the book Ambicoloniality and War: The Ukrainian-Russian Case (Palgrave Macmillan, 2025). She has published texts in leading academic journals and media outlets, such as October, Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Financial Times, and The Art Newspaper. She holds a PhD in History of Art from the Courtauld Institute of Art, University of London<\/p>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--mob\">\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/svitlana.biedarieva\/\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                                    <a href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/in\/svitlana-biedarieva-55828b45\/\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                LinkedIn                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-lg authors-list__item-lg--portrait\">\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-photo-lg square\">\r\n                            \n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/OA-768x768.jpg\"\n     srcset=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/OA-768x768.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/OA-1280x1280.jpg 1280w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/OA-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/OA-1536x1536.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/OA-1920x1920.jpg 1920w\"\n     sizes=\"100%\"\n         alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\">\n\n\n\r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--tablet\">\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials-title\">\r\n                                        \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438 <span>\u2193<\/span>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/oksana.dovgopolova\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-content-lg\">\r\n                            \r\n                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-name-lg\">\r\n                                        <h4>OKSANA DOVGOPOLOVA<\/h4>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-desc-lg\">\r\n                                        <p class=\"p--sm\">PhD, professor at Kyiv School of Economics, member of the Memory Studies Association, Post-Socialist and Comparative Memory Studies Association (PoSoCoMeS), member of the author of scientific and educational publications, co-founder and curator of the Past \/ Future \/ Art memory culture platform<\/p>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--mob\">\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/oksana.dovgopolova\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-lg authors-list__item-lg--portrait\">\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-photo-lg square\">\r\n                            \n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/borys_filonenko.jpg\"\n     srcset=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/borys_filonenko.jpg 598w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/borys_filonenko-150x150.jpg 150w\"\n     sizes=\"100%\"\n         alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\">\n\n\n\r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--tablet\">\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials-title\">\r\n                                        \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438 <span>\u2193<\/span>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/borys.filonenko\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-content-lg\">\r\n                            \r\n                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-name-lg\">\r\n                                        <h4>BORYS FILONENKO<\/h4>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-desc-lg\">\r\n                                        <p class=\"p--sm\">Art critic, editor of the Ist Publishing publishing house, curator and lecturer in humanities in the Kharkiv School of Architecture. Writes about contemporary art and comics. Editor and author of the book \u201cComics at the Contemporary Art Museum\u201d (ukr. \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u043c\u0456\u043a\u0441 \u0443 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u0435\u0457 \u0441\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043c\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0446\u0442\u0432\u0430\u00bb, co-curator of the 2nd bienal of young art (Kharkiv 2019, together with Daryna Skrynnyk_Myska and Anastasiia Evseeva)<\/p>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--mob\">\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/borys.filonenko\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-lg authors-list__item-lg--portrait\">\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-photo-lg square\">\r\n                            \n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/04\/Maria-Galina-768x767.jpg\"\n     srcset=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/04\/Maria-Galina-768x767.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/04\/Maria-Galina-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/04\/Maria-Galina.jpg 1280w\"\n     sizes=\"100%\"\n         alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\">\n\n\n\r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--tablet\">\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials-title\">\r\n                                        \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438 <span>\u2193<\/span>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/profile.php?id=100006397210587\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-content-lg\">\r\n                            \r\n                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-name-lg\">\r\n                                        <h4>MARIIA HALINA<\/h4>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-desc-lg\">\r\n                                        <p class=\"p--sm\">Author. Writer, poet, researcher of speculative fiction. Member of the Ukrainian PEN centre, author of academic and educational publications<\/p>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--mob\">\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/profile.php?id=100006397210587\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-lg authors-list__item-lg--portrait\">\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-photo-lg square\">\r\n                            \n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/photo-1-e1664327041672.jpg\"\n     srcset=\"\"\n     sizes=\"100%\"\n         alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\">\n\n\n\r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--tablet\">\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials-title\">\r\n                                        \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438 <span>\u2193<\/span>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/olha.honchar\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-content-lg\">\r\n                            \r\n                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-name-lg\">\r\n                                        <h4>OLHA HONCHAR<\/h4>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-desc-lg\">\r\n                                        <p class=\"p--sm\">A cultural scientist, project and communications manager, director of the Memorial museum of totalitarian regimes \u201cTerritory of Terror\u201d. Researchers the Public Relations, cultural and museum management in Ukraine, in particular its regions. Co-curator of the experimental exhibition about the ATO in the Regional Luhansk local history museum in Starobilsk<\/p>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--mob\">\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/olha.honchar\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-lg authors-list__item-lg--portrait\">\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-photo-lg square\">\r\n                            \n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Boston-Papa-768x768.jpg\"\n     srcset=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Boston-Papa-768x768.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Boston-Papa-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Boston-Papa.jpg 958w\"\n     sizes=\"100%\"\n         alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\">\n\n\n\r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--tablet\">\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials-title\">\r\n                                        \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438 <span>\u2193<\/span>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/georgiy.kasianov\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-content-lg\">\r\n                            \r\n                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-name-lg\">\r\n                                        <h4>GEORGIY KASIANOV<\/h4>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-desc-lg\">\r\n                                        <p class=\"p--sm\">Historian, PhD in history, professor, head of the Modern History department at the Institute of History of Ukraine of NASU, alumni of the Fulbright-Kennan Institute Research Scholarship, author of books influential of the post-soviet thought, including \u201cTheories of Nations and Nationalism\u201d (ukr. \u00ab\u0422\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0456\u0457 \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0456\u0457 \u0442\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0456\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0456\u0437\u043c\u0443\u00bb), \u201cPast continuous: the politics of history in Ukraine and neighbouring countries in 1980s \u2013 2000s\u201d (ukr. \u00abPast continuous: \u0456\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0456\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430 1980-\u0445 \u2014 2000-\u0445. \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0430 \u0442\u0430 \u0441\u0443\u0441\u0456\u0434\u0438\u00bb) and others<\/p>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--mob\">\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/georgiy.kasianov\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-lg authors-list__item-lg--portrait\">\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-photo-lg square\">\r\n                            \n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/noroot-1-1-e1664327462472.webp\"\n     srcset=\"\"\n     sizes=\"100%\"\n         alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\">\n\n\n\r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--tablet\">\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials-title\">\r\n                                        \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438 <span>\u2193<\/span>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/tymur.korotkyi\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                                    <a href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/in\/tymur-korotkyi-6b5427b3\/?locale=ru_RU\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                LinkedIn                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-content-lg\">\r\n                            \r\n                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-name-lg\">\r\n                                        <h4>TYMUR KOROTKYI<\/h4>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-desc-lg\">\r\n                                        <p class=\"p--sm\">Vice-president of the Ukrainian Association of International Law, leading researcher at the State scientific institution \u201cInstitute of Information, Security and Law of the National Academy of Legal Sciences of Ukraine\u201d, PhD in Law, docent<\/p>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--mob\">\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/tymur.korotkyi\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                                    <a href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/in\/tymur-korotkyi-6b5427b3\/?locale=ru_RU\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                LinkedIn                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-lg authors-list__item-lg--portrait\">\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-photo-lg square\">\r\n                            \n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Anton-Korynevych_Photo_official_1-July-2019_9-768x768.jpg\"\n     srcset=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Anton-Korynevych_Photo_official_1-July-2019_9-768x768.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Anton-Korynevych_Photo_official_1-July-2019_9-1280x1280.jpg 1280w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Anton-Korynevych_Photo_official_1-July-2019_9-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Anton-Korynevych_Photo_official_1-July-2019_9-1536x1536.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Anton-Korynevych_Photo_official_1-July-2019_9-1920x1920.jpg 1920w\"\n     sizes=\"100%\"\n         alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\">\n\n\n\r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--tablet\">\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials-title\">\r\n                                        \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438 <span>\u2193<\/span>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/anton.korynevych.75\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-content-lg\">\r\n                            \r\n                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-name-lg\">\r\n                                        <h4>ANTON KORYNEVYCH<\/h4>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-desc-lg\">\r\n                                        <p class=\"p--sm\">Ambassador-at-large of the Ukrainian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, docent in the department of International Law at the Institute of International Affairs at the Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, PhD in History<\/p>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--mob\">\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/anton.korynevych.75\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-lg authors-list__item-lg--portrait\">\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-photo-lg square\">\r\n                            \n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/\u0410\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043d-\u041b\u044f\u0433\u0443\u0448\u04301-768x768.jpg\"\n     srcset=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/\u0410\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043d-\u041b\u044f\u0433\u0443\u0448\u04301-768x768.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/\u0410\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043d-\u041b\u044f\u0433\u0443\u0448\u04301-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/\u0410\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043d-\u041b\u044f\u0433\u0443\u0448\u04301.jpg 1061w\"\n     sizes=\"100%\"\n         alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\">\n\n\n\r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--tablet\">\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials-title\">\r\n                                        \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438 <span>\u2193<\/span>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/anton.lyagusha\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-content-lg\">\r\n                            \r\n                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-name-lg\">\r\n                                        <h4>ANTON LIAGUSHA<\/h4>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-desc-lg\">\r\n                                        <p class=\"p--sm\">PhD in history, Dean of the Graduate Department of Social Sciences and Humanities of Kyiv School of Economics<\/p>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--mob\">\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/anton.lyagusha\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-lg authors-list__item-lg--portrait\">\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-photo-lg square\">\r\n                            \n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/12\/oleh_luhovyi-1.jpg\"\n     srcset=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/12\/oleh_luhovyi-1.jpg 583w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/12\/oleh_luhovyi-1-150x150.jpg 150w\"\n     sizes=\"100%\"\n         alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\">\n\n\n\r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--tablet\">\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials-title\">\r\n                                        \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438 <span>\u2193<\/span>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/profile.php?id=100004168480783\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-content-lg\">\r\n                            \r\n                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-name-lg\">\r\n                                        <h4>OLEH LUGOVYI<\/h4>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-desc-lg\">\r\n                                        <p class=\"p--sm\">Historian, docent of the Human History department at the Odesa Mechnikov National University<\/p>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--mob\">\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/profile.php?id=100004168480783\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-lg authors-list__item-lg--portrait\">\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-photo-lg square\">\r\n                            \n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/Ruta-Valaityte-768x512.jpg\"\n     srcset=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/Ruta-Valaityte-768x512.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/Ruta-Valaityte-1280x853.jpg 1280w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/Ruta-Valaityte-1536x1024.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/Ruta-Valaityte-1920x1280.jpg 1920w\"\n     sizes=\"100%\"\n         alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\">\n\n\n\r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--tablet\">\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials-title\">\r\n                                        \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438 <span>\u2193<\/span>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/ruta.valaityte.5\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                                    <a href=\"https:\/\/lt.linkedin.com\/in\/ruta-valaityte-5129a8124\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                LinkedIn                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-content-lg\">\r\n                            \r\n                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-name-lg\">\r\n                                        <h4>RUTA VALAITYTE<\/h4>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-desc-lg\">\r\n                                        <p class=\"p--sm\">Translator and editor of the English language version of the glossary. Anthropologist by education and an international development professional, works with topics of memory and history in Ukraine and other Eastern European countries<\/p>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--mob\">\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/ruta.valaityte.5\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                                    <a href=\"https:\/\/lt.linkedin.com\/in\/ruta-valaityte-5129a8124\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                LinkedIn                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-lg authors-list__item-lg--portrait\">\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-photo-lg square\">\r\n                            \n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/12\/oleksandr_voronyuk-768x768.jpg\"\n     srcset=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/12\/oleksandr_voronyuk-768x768.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/12\/oleksandr_voronyuk-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/12\/oleksandr_voronyuk.jpg 1066w\"\n     sizes=\"100%\"\n         alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\">\n\n\n\r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--tablet\">\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials-title\">\r\n                                        \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438 <span>\u2193<\/span>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/profile.php?id=100009459432490\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-content-lg\">\r\n                            \r\n                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-name-lg\">\r\n                                        <h4>OLEKSANDR VORONIUK<\/h4>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-desc-lg\">\r\n                                        <p class=\"p--sm\">PhD in Philosophy, lecturer in history. Author of the book \u201cThe Philosophy of the Sacred\u201d (Uk. \u00ab\u0424\u0456\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0456\u044f \u0441\u0430\u043a\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u00bb)\r\n<\/p>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--mob\">\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/profile.php?id=100009459432490\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-lg authors-list__item-lg--portrait\">\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-photo-lg square\">\r\n                            \n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/04\/Yulia_Yurchuk-768x769.jpg\"\n     srcset=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/04\/Yulia_Yurchuk-768x769.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/04\/Yulia_Yurchuk-1280x1281.jpg 1280w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/04\/Yulia_Yurchuk-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/04\/Yulia_Yurchuk.jpg 1385w\"\n     sizes=\"100%\"\n         alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\">\n\n\n\r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--tablet\">\r\n                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials-title\">\r\n                                        \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438 <span>\u2193<\/span>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/yuliya.yurchuk\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                                    <a href=\"https:\/\/se.linkedin.com\/in\/yuliya-yurchuk-3482b510\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                LinkedIn                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n\r\n                        <div class=\"authors-list__item-content-lg\">\r\n                            \r\n                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-name-lg\">\r\n                                        <h4>YULIA YURCHUK<\/h4>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                                                                    <div class=\"authors-list__item-desc-lg\">\r\n                                        <p class=\"p--sm\">Historian, lecturer of history of ideas in the S\u00f6dert\u00f6rns University, Sweden. Reseaches the history of Eastern Europe, politics of memory, intellectual history. Author of \u201cReordering of Meaningful Worlds: Memory of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists and the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in Post-Soviet Ukraine\u201d (Acta, 2014)<\/p>\r\n                                    <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                            <div class=\"authors-list__item-socials authors-list__item-socials--mob\">\r\n                                                                                <a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/yuliya.yurchuk\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                Facebook                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                                    <a href=\"https:\/\/se.linkedin.com\/in\/yuliya-yurchuk-3482b510\"\r\n                                               class=\"authors-list__item-socials-btn\"\r\n                                               target=\"_blank\">\r\n                                                LinkedIn                                            <\/a>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n\r\n                                                    <\/div>\r\n                    <\/div>\r\n                            <\/div>\r\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/section>\r\n\r\n\r\n\n\n\r\n    <section class=\"glossary-block default-block\" id=\"glossary-block_7a730e74961124b21bc887d01c3ffd9a\">\r\n\r\n        <div class=\"text-container\">\r\n            <div class=\"glossary-definitions__list\">\r\n                \r\n                                                                        <div id=\"alternate-history\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Alternate History, Ucronie, Uchronia<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ukr.<a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Alternate_History\"><i> \u0410\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u0430 \u0456\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0456\u044f\u00a0<\/i><\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A specific kind of an imaginary experiment. It presumes the creation of an alternative reality resulting from a hypothetical elimination or introduction of factors influencing the reality (a bifurcation point). In its broadest sense, alternative history rejects the assumption that \u201cthere is no subjunctive in history\u201d. Works written in this genre try to respond to the question: \u201cwhat would have happened if\u2026?\u201d Alternative history genre is used not only for essays, novels, novellas or poems, but also films, TV series and computer games.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Roman historian Livy (<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Titus Livius<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">) (59 BC to 17 AD) is considered to be the founder of alternate history. In his work \u201cAb urbe condita\u201d (\u201c<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">From the Founding of the City\u201d<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">book IX<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">)<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> noting that in spite of his reluctance to deviate from historical facts, he could not refrain himself from thinking about what would have happened if Alexander the Great had lived longer and went to war with Rome. Livy writes that most likely Rome would have won the war.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Nevertheless, the tradition for alternate history as a separate branch of literature was laid only two thousand years later by the French writer Louis-Napol\u00e9on Geoffroy-Ch\u00e2teau who in 1836 published a book \u201cHistoire de la monarchie universelle. Napoleon et la conquette du monde\u201d<\/span> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(1812\u20131832) (\u201c<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Napoleon and the Conquest of the World\u201d). Here alternate history of the Napoleonic empire begins with a victorious campaign against Russia in 1812. After the defeat and capitulation of the Russian army \u2013 a global empire ruled by Napoleon was created. It is notable that the first heroes of alternate history works are grand military commanders: Alexander the Great and Napoleon Bonaparte, which indicates that alternate history puts an emphasis on the role of individuals in historical processes.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The French philosopher <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Charles Renouvier proposed an even more radical version of alternate history in his boo<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">k \u201cUchronie: L\u2019Utopie Dans L\u2019Histoire\u201d (1876) (\u201cUchronia: Utopia in History\u201d). It is an alternative history of Europe that starts in the times of the Roman emperor Nerva. In the book, due to the enlightened and humane politics of the Antonine dynasty Rome managed to resist the spread of Christianity which remained a marginal religion of the \u201cbarbarians\u201d. The term \u201cUchronia\u201d is used to this day in French and sometimes in English to refer to alternate history.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the 20th century alternate history was a popular field for imaginary experiments. In 1907 the American journalist J. Chamberlain published a book of essays \u201cIfs of History. How the World Might Have Changed If Things Had Gone Slightly Differently.\u201d In 1926 the British historian Sir Charles Petrie published \u201cIf: A Jacobite Fantasy\u201d, and in 1931 another British historian Sir J. C. Squire edited a collection of essays by leading British historians \u201cIf It Had Happened Otherwise\u201d. Interestingly, one of the essays in the anthology was a text by Winston Churchill \u201cIf Lee Had not Won the Battle of Gettysburg\u201d, which describes an alternate reality in which the South had won the American civil war. In the essay a historian living in this reality discusses the possibility of a Northern victory (a so-called recursive version of alternate history).\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In 1969 the British historian Arnold Toynbee wrote an essay \u201cIf Alexander the Great had Lived on\u201d in which he returned to the thought experiment of Livy, painting a version of alternate history where Alexander the Great made all his ambitious plans come true by conquering the Qin Empire. The essay is written from the perspective of a narrator living in the times of Alexander the XXXVI. It is important that alternate history caught the interest of both fiction and non-fiction writers (who at times were the same people). As a result a subgenre of speculative fiction gradually emerged. To a large extent this subgenre focuses on the difficult periods of modern history.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">For the Western world the Nazi ascent to power and spread of fascism as the dominant ideology in a range of European countries was such a difficult period. Already in 1937 the British feminist writer Katharine Burdekin published her novel \u201cSwastika Night\u201d where the action takes place 700 years after the Nazis came to power. Germany and Japan had won the \u201cTwenty year war\u201d and Japan gained control of North and South Americas, Australia and Asia; the Reich had extended into all of Europe and part of the former Soviet Union, Hitler is worshipped as a blond, blue-eyed god and women are pariahs designated exclusively for reproduction. This novel, strictly speaking, is not an example of alternate history as it was written before the war and did not include a bifurcation between the actual and imagined histories necessary for alternate history, rather it is a dystopia. However, since its publication the topic of victory of the Axis Powers against the Allies has become key in the English language literature. In the short novel \u201cThe Sound of His Horn\u201d (1952), by the British diplomat John William Wall (published under the pseudonym Saraban) action takes place one hundred years after the Hitler\u2019s victory. In the novel women dressed in bird feathers are depicted as victims in a sacral hunt by high ranking fascist officials. The most famous book of this kind is \u201cThe Man in the High Castle\u201d \u2013 a novel by Philip K. Dick, where the bifurcation happens at the assassination of Franklin Roosevelt in 1933. This results in a radical change of the political map of the world. Germany and Japan occupy the West and East coasts of the US. A recursive version of alternate history is also used in this novel \u2013 one of the characters is writing a history where the Axis powers had lost the war.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">This topic has stayed with various authors until the late 20th century. In 1992 the Englishman Robert Harris published a novel \u201cFatherland\u201d which quickly became a bestseller. In the novel the Reich achieves the victory in the Eastern front, Britain capitulates and Hitler is preparing to celebrate his 75th birthday by signing a peace treaty with the US (Hitler\u2019s ageing and a related softening of the totalitarian regime is a common theme in alternate history novels). In 1996 the English intellectual Stephen Fry published \u201cMaking History\u201d, where histories split because Hitler is not born. As a result, a more effective Nazi leader comes to power and Germany wages war with much greater success leading to militarization and radicalization in the US. In 2004 an American intellectual Phillip Roth published \u201cThe Plot Against America\u201d \u2013 where in 1940 a pro-Nazi pilot Charles Lindbergh wins the US presidential elections against F. Roosevelt. After the elections the US starts to rapidly develop into an antisemitic isolationist state. Many novels of this kind try to convey the message of how easily democratic societies can come to accept fascism.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The novels discussed above were reviewed and debated, however a systematic study of alternate history as a separate genre in literature developed relatively late in the 2000s. One of the first to explore this topic was K. Hellekson in her book \u201cThe Alternate History: Refiguring Historical Time\u201d (2001). She not only described the pre-history of the genre, but also analysed several famous novels of this type and reconstructed the logic upon which alternate history models were built. Hellekson showed that many novels focus on the causal relationships in social processes.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Experiments attempting to replay the traumatic events of the 20th century also exist in other forms of art. The most prominent recent example is Quentin Tarantino\u2019s film \u201cInglourious Basterds\u201d (2009), where Hitler is killed in a terrorist attack by the French-Jewish resistance. In another film by Tarantino \u201cOnce Upon a Time in Hollywood\u201d (2019) \u2013 due to a fortunate flow of events the actress Sharon Tate \u2013 wife of Roman Polanski \u2013 survives an attack by the Charles Manson gang (she was killed in real life). The director himself explains his films in connection with the kabbalistic notion of \u201ctikkun olam\u201d, meaning \u201crepairing the world\u201d.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In recent years, another topic has become prominent in the alternate history genre \u2013 the rehabilitation of previously repressed minorities. The examples include the Netflix TV-series \u201cBridgerton\u201d (2020-2021) \u2013 where part of the British aristocrats of the early 19th century are played by dark-skinned actors. The TV series plays out in an alternative reality of a racially equal 19th century London, where people of colour are not only integrated into the society, but also hold aristocratic titles.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><b>Alternate history in USSR and Russia. <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Marxist-Leninist theory assumed that historical processes are predetermined, hence it is unsurprising that, firstly, there were few experiments with alternate history in the USSR and secondly, that the most famous example was first published in the West. It is the novel \u201cThe Island of Crimea\u201d by Vasily Aksyonov published in 1981 by Ardis Publishing in the US. In the novel the author introduced a version of Russia divided into North and South in a model akin to North and South Korea. Crimea, which remained a stronghold of the whites after the Russian revolution \u2013 has become a flourishing western-like democracy.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In post-soviet Russia alternate history literature is associated with the idea of a \u201csuccessful Russian project\u201d. The most prominent piece of literature is \u201cGravilyot Tsesarevitch\u201d (1992) (ru. \u201c\u0413\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0451\u0442 \u201c\u0426\u0435\u0441\u0430\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447\u201d) by Vyacheslav Rybakov and the project \u201cEurasian Symphony\u201d (2003-2005) (ru. \u00ab\u0415\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0438\u043c\u0444\u043e\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00bb) by Holm van Zaichik (a pseudonym of Vyacheslav Rybakov and Igor Alimov). One of the most recent examples of alternate history is the TV series \u201cFandorin. Azazel\u201d (ru. \u201c\u0424\u0430\u043d\u0434\u043e\u0440\u0456\u043d. \u0410\u0437\u0430\u0437\u0435\u043b\u044c\u201d) directed by Nurbek Egen where action takes place in the Russian empire of 2023.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><b>Alternate history in Ukraine. <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Alternate history is a relatively new genre that developed at the turn of the century. In the Ukrainian cultural discourse an alternative term is used to refer to alternate history. \u201cYakbytolohiia\u201d (ukr. \u044f\u043a\u0431\u0438\u0442\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0456\u044f) (can be roughly translated as \u201cwhat-if-ology\u201d) was introduced by Dmytro Shurkhalo \u2013 the author of the first popular academic book on the topic \u201cUkrainian Yakbytolohiia. Essays on Alternative History\u201d (ukr. \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430 \u042f\u043a\u0431\u0438\u0442\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0456\u044f. \u041d\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0438 \u0430\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0457 \u0456\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0456\u0457) (first edition \u2013 2004, reprinted in 2017). According to the author, the book \u201cattempts to look at the history of Ukraine in light of years of coincidences.\u201d Mykhailo Gaukhman in a way continued developing this theme in his work \u201cWhere do Kozaks come from? Yakbytolohiia of one Myth\u201d (2016). It is noteworthy that almost all Ukrainian imagined alternative history models aim to strengthen national identity, or at least make the reader experience it more vividly.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Ukrainian fiction in this genre only confirms this statement. \u201cParade in Moscow\u201d (1997) (ukr. \u0414\u0435\u0444\u0456\u043b\u044f\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0456) by the Ukrainian \u201cfather\u201d of alternate history Vasyl Kozhelianko characteristically is also based on an alternative version of the Second World War. In the novel &#8220;Rivne\/Rovno (Wall)&#8221; (ukr.\u00a0 \u201c\u0420\u0456\u0432\u043d\u0435\/\u0420\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e (\u0421\u0442\u0456\u043d\u0430)\u201d) by Oleksandr Irvanets \u2013 the home city of the author \u2013 Rivne is divided by a wall, similarly to East and West Berlin. His other novel \u201cKharkiv 1938\u201d (2017) describes a reality where the Ukrainian People\u2019s Republic survived and the lives of Ukrainian writers took a very different \u2013 a much more successful \u2013 course than it had in fact taken in the USSR. Another example of Ukrainian alternate history fiction is the steampunk novel \u201cDon\u2019t Listen. Don\u2019t Speak. Don\u2019t Look: novel\u201d (2017) (Ukr. \u201c\u041d\u0435\u0447\u0443\u0439. \u041d\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0432. \u041d\u0435\u0431\u0430\u0447: \u043a\u0456\u043d\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u201d) by Petro Yatsenko where the main characters are important 19th century Ukrainian writers and cultural figures Ivan Nechuy-Levytsky and Panteleimon Kulish. (For more information, see text by Anatoliy and Kateryna Pityk \u201c<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/chytomo.com\/a-vse-mohlo-buty-inakshe-alternatyvna-istoriia-ukrainy-u-4-kh-knyzhkakh\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Everything could have been different: Alternative history of Ukraine in five books\u201d<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">).\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">It is important to note a less ideologically loaded yet no less characteristic steampunk novel by Ihor Silivra \u201cZeppelin to Kyiv\u201d (2013) (\u201c\u0426\u0435\u043f\u0435\u043b\u0456\u043d \u0434\u043e \u041a\u0438\u0454\u0432\u0430\u201d). The novel, according to the abstract, depicts \u201ca world where electricity is seen as charlatanism and pseudoscience, where Kyiv has a monorail instead of a metro, the sky is full of giant zeppelins, and calculations are performed by mechanical calculators\u201d. Another similar example is \u201cLazarus\u201d (2018) (ukr. \u201c\u041b\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u201d) by Svitlana Taratorina, set in an alternative Kyiv of 19th century where creatures from Ukrainian folklore live side by side with people.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Examples of alternate history exist in other Ukrainian media. One should at least mention the ukrainian action-adventure feature film by Roman Perfilyev \u201cOnce upon a Time in Ukraine\u201d (alternatively \u201cInglorious Serfs\u201d ukr. \u00ab\u0411\u0435\u0437\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0456 \u043a\u0440\u0456\u043f\u0430\u043a\u0438\u00bb) the film uses the slogan \u201cKatana, Pistol and iron moustache\u201d. The film\u2019s title is a direct reference to Quentin Tarantino\u2019s \u201cInglourious Basterds\u201d. In the film the young Taras Shevchenko meets a fugitive half-ukrainian samurai Akaio and together they set off on an adventurous path in the spirit of spaghetti westerns. Another example is a steampunk media project \u201cThe Will\u201d (ukr. \u0412\u043e\u043b\u044f). It consists of comics and a board game that integrate elements of steampunk and dieselpunk. (In the alternative universe of \u201cThe Will\u201d the First World War did not end in 1918 and battles still rage across the globe, in spite all of this Ukrainian state manages to develop \u2013 all thanks to technological progress, military victories and industrial development. The Bolsheviks are not sleeping, they have their own plans for Ukraine \u2013 and deserve a strong response. For more information see <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/itc.ua\/ua\/articles\/oglyad-ukrayinskogo-patriotychnogo-komiks-vsesvitu-volya\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">text <\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">by Mykyta Kazymyrovych.) <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Mariia Halina)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"Ambicoloniality\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Ambicoloniality<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pastfutureart.org\/glossary#Ambicoloniality\"><b><i>\u0410\u043c\u0431\u0456\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0456\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0456\u0441\u0442\u044c<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201cAmbicoloniality\u201d is a term proposed by art historian Svitlana Biedarieva in her book <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Ambicoloniality and War: The Ukrainian-Russian Case<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (2024). The notion of \u201cambicoloniality\u201d encompasses the particular dynamics of the centuries-long two-fold exchange of cultural and symbolic influences characteristic of Russian colonialism in Ukraine. Ambicoloniality can be addressed from a broader cultural framework that takes into account cultural proximity (and the institutional and infrastructural networks supporting it) and the shared geographical and political borders between the two countries. This notion forms part of the proposal for developing a new theoretical approach, which is built on both <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/en\/glossary\/#postcolonial-theory\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">postcolonial<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/en\/glossary\/#decolonisation\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">decolonial<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> frameworks.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The full-scale invasion, seen by Russia as a struggle for power, is considered in this approach as part of a wider process of ambicolonial development, in which the invader becomes subject to its own colonial behavior and propaganda, losing control over reality. Ambicoloniality as the filtering of mutually important influences over the shared border draws on the postcolonial notions of \u201chybridity\u201d and \u201cambivalence,\u201d yet presents a significant difference in the formative mechanism. It focuses not as much on shared characteristics and implicit syncretism but on mutual influences, both symbolic and political.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The notion of \u201cambicoloniality\u201d is introduced to speak about the current situation when Ukraine has become Russia&#8217;s territory of obsession, and Russia, in its desire to occupy Ukraine, has in effect subjected itself to Ukraine\u2019s symbolic dominance. Ambicoloniality presents a key point of divergence from already existing models, as the mutual impact of the two countries over centuries has gone both ways, over a shared border\u2014in contrast to other <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/en\/glossary\/#empire\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">empires<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> that established their colonial power relations at a distance, rendering the Ukrainian-Russian case very different from the examples covered by both postcolonial and decolonial theorists. To explore the reasons and consequences of such a differing process of colonial expansion\/anti-colonial struggle\/decolonial release, ambicolonial theory inquires into the historical and cultural factors for the widening gap between the two states. This concept challenges existing postcolonial paradigms and offers new ways to understand intertwined colonial histories in regions like the currently dismantling post-Soviet space.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">How can a colonizer be simultaneously obsessed with and destabilized by its former <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/en\/glossary\/#colony\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">colony<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">? The scholarly influences on the development of this concept are multifold.<\/span> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Ambicoloniality is a concept that builds on the notion of &#8220;coloniality&#8221; originally coined by Peruvian sociologist An\u00edbal Quijano. Quijano proposed that coloniality refers to the ongoing legacy of colonialism in the present, including how colonial power structures and hierarchies (which he calls \u201cel patr\u00f3n colonial del poder,\u201d largely translated as \u201cthe colonial matrix of power\u201d) continue to shape social relations and cultural practices. This concept formed the fundament for the decolonial theory, particularly the work of the group Modernidad\/Colonialidad, which looks at the ways the colonial relationship is reenacted in the countries of Latin America, preserving in the contemporaneity the power relation shaped by the colonialism of the past. The opposite of the coloniality of power, which in the long run dismantles its hierarchy and manifests liberation from the colonial bonds, is decoloniality. Ambicoloniality emerges as an alternative to the coloniality\/decoloniality dichotomy, applied to the particular conditions of the Ukrainian\u2013Russian entanglement and which can be expanded to further sets of relationships in former Russia\u2019s colonies, particularly in the post-Soviet space.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The idea of ambicoloniality in a way deviates from the notion of coloniality of power because it does not consider colonialism as a product of inequality of economic and political positions and the initial difference in ethnic- and nation-based rigid hierarchies of power, including subject-object relationships. Rather, it sees power as a symbolic exchange rooted in the cultural strength of the parties involved. This theory helps to explain the particular model of the relationship between Russia and Ukraine over the shared border, as it focuses on the filtering of power influences rather than on a particular vector of impact.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Ambicoloniality is constituted by four interconnected yet autonomous processes: filtering, appropriation, affection, and transgression. In the conditions of ambicoloniality, the filtering of mutual influences occurs through the borderline which is uneven and permeable, allowing an exchange of mutual influences and visions\/expressions of power. The shared border between Ukraine and Russia presents such a filter that works two-fold and shapes epistemologies adjacent to this divisive (and merging) line.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In contrast to the vision of self-colonization with external influences, developed by Bulgarian scholar Alexander Kiossev, in which the self-colonized population adopts the customs and values of the more powerful counterpart, to whose domain they don\u2019t necessarily belong politically, and consequently, internalizes their own inferior status, ambicoloniality involves a more complex and nuanced interplay of agency between the two parties. While the power structure is two-fold as it is formed through political ambitions and symbolism, the agency is divided between the current or former colonizer and the current or former colonized. Ukraine, in this case, takes an important role in epistemological production that has had a historical impact on Russia\u2019s development.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><b>Polymorphous Coloniality and Necropolitics. <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">This polymorphism in Russia is one of the main reasons, along with cultural proximity, for the ambicolonial situation. Russia\u2019s centuries-long dissatisfaction with its place in world power hierarchies led to the creation of a mimicry mechanism that worked two-fold. First, borrowing from Cold War narratives of anti-imperialist resistance, Russia imitates anti-colonial struggle in its war-fueling propaganda, exercising its invented victimhood as a geopolitical \u201cother.\u201d The strand of anti-Western expression that has become popular in Russia builds on this position. It is noteworthy that in this model, Ukraine is affiliated with the global political West and is simultaneously viewed as Russia\u2019s imaginary West. This gives Ukraine particular significance in Russia\u2019s picture of the world as a representation of the binary divisions present before the fall of the Iron Curtain. The second strand of Russia\u2019s polymorphous coloniality refers to the complex affective relationship between Russia and Ukraine formed by centuries of struggle and domination. Ukraine, in this colonial optics, is viewed through the lens of similarity as a \u201cbrotherly,\u201d another, yet \u201cthe same,\u201d Slavic nation. The colonizer\u2019s blindness to intrinsic differences overshadowed by colonial belonging is the key to projecting the situation of the oppressed and their unique characteristics on the oppressor, resulting in particular \u201cself-othering.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The development of Russian colonialism, under the veil of the 1990s democratic processes, in its ambition of both othering and self-othering through oppression, echoes Achilles Mbembe\u2019s notion of \u201cnecropolitics\u201d as the dark side of a postcolonial system mimicking colonial rule in its aims and methods. Mbembe points out the particular rhetorical inversion of such politics aimed at mortifying through othering: \u201cThrough a strange transmutation, victims are now summoned to bear, in addition to the prejudice suffered, the guilt that their executioners ought to feel\u201d (Mbembe 2019, 39). In Mbembe\u2019s model, where the blame is put on the victims, they replicate violence by returning it to the perpetrators through a never-ending cycle. The creation of such a vicious circle is beneficial for the colonial ambition of Russia, yet Ukraine\u2019s only option for ceasing the war violence is contributing to the unveiling of Russia\u2019s discursive polymorphism and establishing a decolonial status quo of the victim and the aggressor.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><b>Jouissance and Colonial Desire. <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In an ambicolonial relationship, there is a fascination by the colonizer with the symbolic field of the subaltern country and a desire for its appropriation. This is expressed in a more affective way than in traditional forms of colonization, as the desire for cultural, political, and social adherence to another state&#8217;s customs and traditions is driven by a deep emotional attachment. The neocolonial war of Russia against Ukraine shows the profound connection between ambicolonial affection and the Lacanian interpretation of <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">jouissance<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> where the desire receives destructive and deadly effects, both on its colonial subject and object.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The affective dynamics of ambicoloniality render Ukraine the main subject of colonial desire. Russian public imagination is overwhelmed by propaganda claiming Ukraine as part of its symbolic territory, while Russia\u2019s desire is presently turned toward Ukraine. At the same time, in Ukraine, while the country is forced into resistance, the cultural and social conditions are already pointing to the existence of a strong independent culture that withstands this colonial situation.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Searching for an imaginary <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">jouissance<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> of reunification, the neocolonial aspiration of Russia transgresses, splits, and eventually destroys the object of longing\u2014which is, nevertheless, a utopian object\u2014and loses its own integrity in chasing this fantasy of the past. The fatal desire creates a new order of things where the object of desire is unattainable \u2013 and this impossibility creates a new power hierarchy that breaks up with mutuality of exchange.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The dependency on the double-sided relationship is crucial for the imaginary balance where two countries stand as two geopolitical pillars. Once the oppressed is emancipated, the oppressor falls under the weight of the demolishing structure of power. This failure represents the ultimate loss of not only territories but also of the predatory and manipulative cultural system supporting such an entanglement. The aggressive war of Russia aims to maintain this imaginary balance, substituting power sustaining the ambicolonial system with violence; however, what escapes their attention is that the opposite pillar supporting colonialism became decrepit long ago. Ukraine has undergone several \u201crites of passage\u201d in constituting a separate identity: from three Maidan revolutions in 1990, 2004, and 2014 to the proven ability of active resistance through the military frontline and the decolonization of the cultural field. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Svitlana Biedarieva)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                                        <div id=\"banal-evil\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Banal Evil<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Banal_Evil\"><b><i>\u0417\u043b\u043e \u0431\u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0435<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">One of the forms of evil in the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Holocaust\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">post-Holocaust<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> culture, along with the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Liquid_Evil\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">liquid<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Transparent_Evil\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">transparent<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> evil, that rose to prominence after the release of Hanna Arendt\u2019s <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com.ua\/books?id=KgEA04ww0igC&amp;dq=eichmann+in+jerusalem&amp;hl=uk\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">book \u201cEichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil\u201d<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(1963).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Banality means that a) the evil is committed by beurocratic mediocrities (\u201csimple people\u201d) who are as distanced from their victims as possible; b) there is no longer a greater motivation or idea to rationalize the act\u2014evil is committed for the sake of it just because it is possible;\u2014it is committed for the sake of evil itself just because it is possible; c) the evil is immanent, which deprives the world of any trancendent quality, reducing the existence to factual presence and certainty, with no possibility of surprise or surplus meanings (anti-world).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Banality demonstrates how evil goes beyond the frame of reference of theodicy, ontological incompleteness, and temptation: it is unjustified, immanent, and mundane. While the romantic evil is something an exceptional person does in extraordinary circumstances under the effect of a greater power (the Devil), the banal evil is a mundane act committed by a typical person under typical circumstances.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The irony and danger of banal evil\u2019s impunity is that it instrumentalizes victims and executioners alike, depriving the latter of agency in committing it (as in \u201cI just followed orders\u201d). Once brought to justice, the executioner equates themselves to the victim or even elevates themselves, turning to \u201cthe jargon of authenticity\u201d (Frankfurt School) (as in \u201cWe are the true and greatest victims!\u201d). This position shapes the unaccountability and shamelessness imperative present in the contemporary Russian culture (the \u201c#\u043c\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044b\u0434\u043d\u043e\u201d tag). Instead of punishing evil, this imperative enables its self-replication, particularly through equating the status of victims and executioners. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oleksandr Voroniuk)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                                        <div id=\"collective_memory\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Collective Memory<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ukr.\u00a0 <a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Collective_Memory\"><i>\u041a\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0430\u043c\u2019\u044f\u0442\u044c<\/i><\/a><i><br \/>\n<\/i>Fr. <i>La m\u00e9moire Collective<\/i><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Knowledge about the past, which is supported\/ continuously reconstructed by a given community and influences the formation of identity of that community as well as identities of its individual members.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The concept of collective memory was formulated by a French sociologist Maurice Halbwachs in the mid-1920s. Halbwachs articulated the idea that individual memories are launched from and shaped by their sociocultural contexts, that is by the social frameworks of memory (Les cadres sociaux). Collective memory results from communication and social interaction.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Following Halbwachs, any kind of memory is both individual and collective at the same time \u2013 memory of any single person is located in the socially shared knowledge framework. We share with other people a certain knowledge about the time that we live in. Hence, collective memory is the knowledge about the past which we shared with others.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The philosopher Avishai Margalit distinguishes between \u201ccommon\u201d memory and memory that is \u201cshared\u201d with others. Common memory \u2013 is the memory held by witnesses of the same event, while shared memory requires communication.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Some researchers prefer to speak about the process of collective remembering, rather than collective memory: socially shared processes of remembering perform social functions and have social consequences.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Barbara Szacka, Paul Connerton, Jeffrey Olick distinguish between collective and social memory.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Sometimes researchers prefer to use the concepts of \u201csocial memory\u201d, \u201chistorical memory\u201d or others referring to same or similar phenomena. That is why the texts dealing with problems of collective memory sometimes become more complicated due to the preferences of a specific scholar.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The concept of collective memory from the very start was criticised by those who preferred to see memory exclusively as a mental process, because groups do not have consciousness (a psyche). Halbwachs agreed with this, yet emphasised that language as a network of communicative forms always belongs to a group and is the means to articulate memory.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Jan Assmann \u2013 a historian of religion and culture, one of the authors of the collective memory concept, specified that an individual raised completely on his or her own would have no memory at all. Memory arises in a person only through the process of socialisation. Even though only separate individuals \u201cpossess\u201d memory, the memory itself is shaped by the group. Groups of people do not \u201cpossess\u201d memory, but they condition the memories of their members.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A rather complex nod of meanings is formed around Halbwachs\u2019s comparison of memory and history. History focuses on critical thinking and analysis, while memory \u2013 at creation of emotional belonging.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">According to the French researcher Pierre Nora, memory is always carried by living social groups and in this sense it constantly evolves. Memory is open to the dialectics of remembering and amnesia. In this context Aleida Assmann makes an important statement that collective memory is a dynamic environment for working through individual experiences and for building social identities. Regarding the dynamism of collective memory, it\u2019s important to note the reflection by Nora about the deformation of collective memory and its openness to manipulation \u2013 which are invisible to its carriers.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Regarding the critique of collective memory by contrasting it to history, the German scholar Astrid Erll notes that the critics usually disregard an important aspect: while researching collective memory scholars focus not on what is being remembered, how on how it happens. In this way the memory about the First World War can be seen as memory of a mythical event (\u201cWar as an apocalypse\u201d), as part of political history (war as the beginning of the catastrophes of the 20<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">th<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> century), as part of national history (\u201cwar that my grandad fought in\u201d) or as something else. All of the above are different ways to refer back to the past. Hence Astrid Erll claims that the contrast between history and memory is artificial \u2013 because history is only one of many possible modes of referring to the past.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">According to the sociologist Barbara Szacka, the collection of facts that enter the collective memory space is significantly smaller than that analysed by professional historians. There are three main ways these facts are collected: popular historical research, state channels for distribution of knowledge about history (education, public holidays, etc) and personal social interaction, which create certain mechanisms to resist the narratives imposed by authorities. Following Szacka, the transformation of knowledge about the past into collective memory happens through Omission (silencing of unpleasant facts), Falsification, Exaggeration and Embellishment, Manipulating connections, Accusation of enemies, Shifting the blame to circumstances, and Construction of context.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Jan Assmann differentiates between two kinds of collective memory \u2013 communicative and cultural. Aleida Assmann specifies this classification and differentiates individual, family, national and cultural memories. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oksana Dovgopolova)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"collective-responsibility\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Collective Responsibility<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Collective_Responsibility\"><b><i>\u041a\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u0430 \u0432\u0456\u0434\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0456\u0434\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0456\u0441\u0442\u044c<\/i><\/b><\/a><b><i><br \/>\n<\/i><\/b><b><i><br \/>\n<\/i><\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A person\u2019s readiness to take responsibility for engaging with the memory of the community they identify with.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">While building their relationship with the world, a person establishes an emotional connection with specific communities, internalizing the features associated with the group\u2019s members. The simplest explanation for group identification is genetic kinship, as in \u201cI am the same as my ancestors and other people who belong to my nation\/family\/city\/province\/etc.\u201d Accordingly, a person identifies with their ancestors, taking pride in their victories, and sometimes cannot accuse those ancestors of something, because it feels as if accusing themselves.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">However, affiliation with a larger community need not be genetically conditioned, as evidenced by the example of specific <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Collective_Identity\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">collective identities<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> in international spaces. Some nations are known to be polyethnic, but their distinctiveness goes beyond the sum of ethnic features of the communities they include. Therefore, collective identity arises from the individual consent to represent oneself as a community member. Given that knowledge about the community\u2019s past is a crucial identification factor, one may argue that a person feels a substantial emotional connection to the people and events of the past.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Being confident in the essential unity of all social community members, an individual sometimes develops an uncritical attitude toward the actions of people of the past and considers the readiness to deflect any accusations directed at them as a virtue. The value framework of such a position draws on the confidence in the greater value of the community, whose prosperity warrants disregarding individuals\u2019 interests. Within this directive, the connection between community members is deemed sacral, while attempts at critical analysis fall under the definition of sacrilege.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">If the value structure is grounded in a person\u2019s life and dignity, the relationship with the world is governed by other principles. Justifying one\u2019s ancestors\u2019 actions becomes unacceptable in this situation. A person thus approaches the past critically and responsibly. Realizing that they bear no responsibility for their ancestors\u2019 crimes, a person can <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pastfutureart.org\/glossary#Working_Through_the_Past\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">work through the past<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> on the premise that the past crimes cannot be repeated.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The problem with applying the concept of historical responsibility is that it is often conflated with <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Collective_Guilt\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">guilt<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. In the context of legal responsibility, it means taking coercive measures against a person <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">guilty<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> of a crime. Therefore, it is crucial to distinguish between guilt and responsibility in their collective dimension.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">One of the most revealing demonstrations of historical responsibility is the gesture of Willy Brandt, Federal Chancellor of West Germany (1969\u20131974). He joined the Social Democratic movement in Germany in 1929, but emigrated to Norway when Hitler came to power and was stripped of German citizenship. During World War II, he contributed to the anti-Nazi effort and did not return to Germany until 1945, restoring his citizenship in 1948. As the Chancellor of West Germany, Willy Brandt paid an official visit to Poland in 1970 and knelt before the monument to the German occupation-era Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. It was not part of the official protocol, nor was it atonement for his personal fault: Willy Brandt was not even a citizen of Nazi Germany to feel guilty of the crime. However, it was a collective responsibility gesture on his part as West Germany\u2019s official representative, which showed that the country he represented at the time was built on values starkly different from the Nazi ones.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">That gesture clearly demonstrates the difference between collective guilt and collective responsibility. The responsibility is assumed by a mature person who can tell the difference between infantile self-justification, repentance for someone else\u2019s crimes, and working through the past. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oksana Dovgopolova)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"colony\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Colony<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ukr. <a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Colony\"><i>\u041a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0456\u044f<\/i><\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The original meaning of the word <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">colonia \u2013 <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">is the settlement of Roman citizens outside the city of Rome. Residents of these colonies retained the full set of their rights as Roman citizens and served as a direct bulwark of Roman power among the subjugated population of the province.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Roman authors used the same word to describe settlements of various nations on foreign terrains: Hellenic <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">apoikias <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Greek for colonies) in the period of the Greek colonisation (Cicero, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">De re publica, <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">book 2), Phynician settlements and others. These settlements were largely independent polises that only nominally maintained good ties with their metropoles.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">At the same time, the original meaning of \u2018colonia\u2019 that corresponded to the spread of the colonate (tenant farmer class) continued to exist. In this sense, \u2018colonia\u2019 described the plot of land worked by a particular colonus (tenant farmer) and the taxes to be paid from this plot. This meaning of the word \u201ccolony\u201d was used both in Roman legal documents as well as in mediaeval texts.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The first overseas dominions of the Portuguese, Spaniards, the French, the English or Dutch in Africa and India were subject to the power of the metropoles outside of the metropole\u2019s territory. They predominantly functioned as trade outposts. However, in modernity with the expansion of these settlements \u2013 initially the Spanish ones in Mesoamerica and later of the Dutch in the Maluku Islands \u2013 the word \u201ccolony\u201d acquired a new meaning tied with the imperialist policies of European states.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201cColonised country or area\u201d \u2013 was the meaning of the word \u2018colony\u2019 in the English language in 1610. The economist Fran\u00e7ois V\u00e9ron Duverger de Forbonnais \u2013 the author of the text about colony in Diderot and d\u2019Alambert\u2019s \u201cEncyclopedie\u201d \u2013 described this new phenomenon as the sixth and final type of colony, created as much for trade as for agriculture, which required conquering the territory, displacing the local population and settling a new one. Such type of colonies were created solely for the benefit of the metropole and were under its full control and protection. Since this period, the word \u201ccolony\u201d started to refer to a territory that is under control and government of a foreign country, but remains separate from the administration of the metropole.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A colony has an intermediary administrative status and is somewhere in between the territories that are fully incorporated into the core territories of the state and dependent territories, protectorates and others. This is firstly, marked by the fact that colonies are governed by separate colonial administrations and their indigenous populations do not have the same rights as the citizens or subjects of the metropole regardless of their social standing. Secondly, residents of the colony either completely lack self-governance, or self-governance exists only nominally for resolving internal matters.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Depending on a specific historical situation, such colonies acquired the characteristics of either settler colonies (mostly settled by colonists from the metropole), exploitative (indigenous population was exploited without major resettlement from the metropole), or surrogate (were the colonists were settlers from other colonies, rather than the metropole).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Among the conventional features of a colony is its location in considerable distance from the metropole, its overseas character and national, cultural, and civilisational difference from the metropole (the last feature is lost in the case of settler colonialism). However, the feature of distance is present in this concept predominantly due to the tradition to use the word \u2018colony\u2019 to refer to overseas territories of Western European countries, acquired as a consequence of the Age of discovery. At the same time most features of a colony were applicable to non-Overseas territories that belonged to the Ottoman, Russian or Chinese empires, and which were settled by populations conquered by the titular group. Hence the literature of the 1920s referred to Khiva and Bukhara Khanates, Uryankhai Krai and Manchuria as colonies of the Russian empire.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">According to a nationalistic interpretation of colonialism, any kind of territory where national-cultural oppression has taken place is a colony, even in cases where the legal status of local residents was equal to that of the titular nation.\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Given this, one should not forget, that the original meaning of the word \u201ccolony\u201d \u2013 settlement beyond the territory of the metropole \u2013 did not disappear, but acquired numerous variations, including demographic (internal colonisation), diplomatic (community of diplomats or emigres of one state on the territory of another), national-economic (German colonies on the Black Sea coast), penitentiary (penal colony, corrective labour colony), and even biological (bacterial colony, coral colonies). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oleg Lugovyi)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"commemoration\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Commemoration<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ukr. <a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Commemoration\"><i>\u041a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0456\u044f<\/i><\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A set of social practices aimed at showing respect to the past events or at working through the past. A person understands his or her belonging in a society, among other things, through a shared understanding of past events \u2013 what to be proud of, what to forget or explain. For this reason, important ceremonies often take place at memorial sites: the laying of flowers, dedications to members of particular groups, parades, salvos, or funeral processions.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Commemoration \u2013 involves more than placing informational signs in public places or inclusion of new dates into the official lists of public holidays. Commemoration refers to interpretations of events, strategies for building social ceremonies, instruments for heritage preservation or its transformation.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The state defines which past events should be honoured, and why they are important. Yet commemoration is not synonymous with politics of history \u2013 commemorative practices are formed not only by the state, but by society and separate groups of people.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Commemorative practices, among other things, include military parades dedicated to specific dates, as well as local practices of historical reconstruction that support the official politics of memory, but commemorative practices can also be in opposition to such politics. A candle light on a windowsill on the Holodomor Remembrance Day in Ukraine \u2013 is a commemorative practice that people partake in voluntarily.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Commemoration can also become a source of conflict. In the USA there are calls to remove monuments to the former slave owners who were important political figures in their own time. Sometimes, states actively oppose some commemorative practices. For example, ceremonies commemorating the victims of the Chernobyl disaster are sanctioned in Belarus.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Changes in commemorative models in society may be triggered by pieces of art, as happened in Germany, where the publication of G\u00fcnter Grass\u2019s novel \u201cCrabwalk\u201d made public discussions about the suffering of German civilians during World War II possible.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Commemoration \u2013 is a very broad field of practices that anchors processes that allow society to look at itself through its own reflection in the past. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oksana Dovgopolova)\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"communicative-memory\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Communicative Memory<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ger. <\/b><b><i>Kommunikatives Ged\u00e4chtnis<\/i><\/b><b><i><br \/>\n<\/i><\/b><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Communicative_Memory\"><b><i>\u041a\u043e\u043c\u0443\u043d\u0456\u043a\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0430\u043c&#8217;\u044f\u0442\u044c<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Proposed by Jan Assmann, this term denotes a part of <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pastfutureart.org\/glossary#Collective_Memory\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">collective memory<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> grounded in transmitting information from eyewitnesses to other people, which lasts for three or four generations, or 80 to 100 years.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Communicative memory exists on the level of social identity and impacts the formation of an individual as a bearer of social roles. According to Assmann, communicative memory exists in social time. Besides, it is not institutional, i.e., not protected by institutions (museums, publishers, or governments). Instead, it lives on through everyday verbal interactions and informal communication. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oksana Dovgopolova)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"Cross-border Politics of Memory\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Cross-border Politics of Memory<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Crossborder_Politics_of_Memory\"><b><i>\u041a\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0456\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u0430\u043c\u2019\u044f\u0442\u0456<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A part of cross-border politics related to the commemoration of events that took place on the territory of a neighboring state.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Cross-border commemoration sites are often associated with specific events of the world wars that led to changes of state borders and mass deportations. When governments seek to memorialize important events of their national history on the territory of other countries, it often causes heated discussions. For example, when Germany proposed to commemorate the suffering of the Germans during the mass resettlement from the territory of the modern-day Poland and Czech Republic, the message was contested since any commemoration act should take into account all related contexts. In this particular case, it is impossible to commemorate the 1943\u201345 events and not remember the events of 1938\u201339 when Germany started WWII, without which there would have been no deportations or the suffering of civilians (including the Germans).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The discussions that have been ongoing for many years between Poland and Ukraine regarding the Polish Orlat Cemetery in Lviv and the cemeteries of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) in Poland can be mentioned here as still another example of cross-border memory politics.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Given that cross-border commemoration is most often associated with traumatic events, the parties involved may have dramatically different views. For such initiatives to be successful, both the requesting and the hosting countries should work on messages that would be mutually acceptable for their citizens. Needless to say, this process depends quite substantially on the political will of the respective governments. In conflict situations, cross-border memory politics may be used as a voter mobilization and political pressure tool to the detriment of fair play.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Cross-border memory politics actors include central governments and governmental organizations; local governments and organizations; NGOs; religious organizations; individuals; and the media. The position of central and local authorities is often challenged by non-governmental actors.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Cross-border communication includes the following stages: denial, protection, minimization, acceptance, adaptation, integration, and retreat.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Sometimes the views of people living near the border may diverge from the official cross-border memory politics, often as a result of the so-called memory entrepreneurship, and they may cherish a vision of a happy multicultural world that existed before the disaster. For example, the <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Felix Austria<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> theme restaurants on both sides of the Ukrainian-Polish border suggest that there is a demand among the locals for nostalgic\/idyllic memory, as well as for the conflict one. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oksana Dovhopolova)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"cultural-memory\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Cultural Memory<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ger. <\/b><b><i>Kulturelles Ged\u00e4chtnis<\/i><\/b><b><i><br \/>\n<\/i><\/b><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Cultural_Memory\"><b><i>\u041a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0430\u043c&#8217;\u044f\u0442\u044c<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">This concept works on two levels: 1) as a variety of <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pastfutureart.org\/glossary#Collective_Memory\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">collective memory<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> alongside <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pastfutureart.org\/glossary#Communicative_Memory\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">communicative memory<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">; 2) as an umbrella term for multiple practical interdisciplinary studies of collective memory.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Jan Assmann regards communicative and cultural memory as two distinct concepts. Communicative memory is grounded in passing the information from eyewitnesses to other people and lasts throughout the lifetime of three to four generations. Cultural memory involves the passing of knowledge about more distant events: it takes institutional effort to further it, and it exists in rituals, <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Commemoration\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">commemoration<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, and presentation.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Cultural memory is defined as a strategy for fighting the experience of total oblivion. It aims to understand and integrate into separate identities the large time spans that enable grasping the knowledge of the past in a way further distanced from communication. Cultural memory is objectified, i.e., it is preserved in symbolic forms that can be passed outside the direct intergenerational communication. Cultural memory is protected by institutions (e.g., educational and museum ones), cultivated by specialists, and integrated in hierarchized social structures.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Cultural memory exists on the level of historical, mythological, and cultural time (in contrast to communicative memory\u2019s existence in social time) and describes the so-called absolute past, the mythical time (up to 3000 years back). Cultural memory is formalized. It is passed on in ceremonial forms and captured in various texts, rituals, and performances.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Some collective memory scholars (Jeffrey Olick, Astrid Erll) propose to interpret cultural memory as the broadest umbrella term that encompasses studies (at times functional, at times metaphorical, at times employing analogy) in history, psychology, sociology, literature studies, and other fields. Therefore, the researchers see it as more of a technical term that can help bridge the interdisciplinary blind spots left from the objection to using, e.g., the term <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Historical_Memory\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">historical memory<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Cultural memory includes primarily practical, rather than theoretical research, and is notable for overcoming intellectual and language barriers. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oksana Dovgopolova)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                                        <div id=\"dark-tourism\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Dark Tourism<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Dark_Tourism\"><b><i>\u0422\u0435\u043c\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0443\u0440\u0438\u0437\u043c<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">This tourism phenomenon is all about visiting the sites of tragedy. The term was proposed by J. John Lennon and Malcolm Foley, both professors at the University of Glasgow, Scotland, in their monograph \u201cDark Tourism\u201d (2000).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">As a practice, dark tourism emerged in the 19th century, when Mark Twain went on tours to the Crimean War battlefield, and the Waterloo battlefield was a popular destination among the English. However, it did not gain substantial traction until the late 20th century.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Researchers Richard Shapley and Phillip R. Stone distinguish multiple directions of dark tourism depending on whether it involves visiting the sites of tragedy or purposely created museum or entertainment infrastructure.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">One example of such an entertainment location is Dracula\u2019s Castle. Shapley and Stone also classify museum exhibits dedicated to the sites of tragedy (technogenic\/natural disasters, mass crimes) as dark tourism.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Stereotypically, though, dark tourism destinations are all real places associated with adverse or tragic experiences.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Prisons, whether historical (e.g., Alcatraz in San Francisco, USA) or political, are also among them. The Prison on \u0141\u0105cki Street in Lviv and Hohensch\u00f6nhausen Prison Complex in Berlin represent the experience of Soviet political repressions. Located in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, Tuol Sleng commemorates the victims of the Khmer Rouge regime\u2014the school building turned prison saw the killing of about 20,000 people in 1975\u20131979. They also include historical and memorial cemeteries, like P\u00e8re Lachaise in Paris and Lychakiv Cemetery in Lviv.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Former battlefields get tourism infrastructure. At Belgium\u2019s Atlantic Wall Open Air Museum, for example, the fortifications dating back to World War I and World War II are open to visitors.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Technogenic disaster sites like Chornobyl become dark tourism destinations, too.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Tourists also visit the sites of <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#War_Crimes\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">war crimes<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and disasters. For example, the city of Hiroshima preserved and conserved the after-effects of nuclear bombardment on 12 hectares of its land. Tourist infrastructure also emerges at the places connected to the crimes of <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Genocide\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">genocide<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and political repressions. One can visit and experience the locations of former Nazi concentration camps. Among such locations are Bykivnia Graves, Ukraine\u2019s largest burial site of the victims of mass political repressions and the place where the executions of Polish officers from the so-called Ukrainian Katyn List took place, and the Kigali Genocide Memorial in Rwanda, housed in the church where Tutsi tried to hide during the 1994 Rwandan genocide.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Dark tourism enables the processing of traumatic experience, pride for the survivors, and a responsible stance toward the future, so that the horrors never repeat. Responsible dark tourism expects those who decide to visit a tragedy site to do much emotional work.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Meanwhile, dark tourism maintains ethical ambivalence. Places of tragedy can become commercial entertainment parks, effectively the chambers of horrors within the spaces of real events. In this context, we speak of \u201cDisneyfying\u201d tragedy sites, where the entertainment elements supplant educational ones. Tragedy sites also attract all kinds of thrill-seekers, and sometimes there is a risk that visits to tragedy sites may become tools of propaganda and mobilization within the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Resentment\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ressentiment<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> space.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In Ukraine, Chornobyl exclusion zone tours drove the rise of dark tourism. While nurturing responsible tourist practices within clearly defined ethical limits, they also gave rise to commercial tourism and stories about mutants and total safety that made the exclusion zone seem like a theme park. The feeling of imminent danger and the overall gamification of the Chornobyl theme made the exclusion zone a magnet for thrill-seekers from all over the world.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Since 2022, there has been a threat of the locations connected to the events of the Russo-Ukrainian War (e.g., mass murder and missile strikes) also turning into dark tourism locations. Ukraine has never encountered such a challenge, so the professional guide community must develop professional standards for working with tragedy sites. Besides traditional guide training, it includes acquiring ethics, safety, and communication skills. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oleksandr Babich)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"decolonisation\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Decolonisation<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ukr. <a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Decolonization\"><i>\u0414\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0456\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0456\u044f<\/i><\/a>\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Decolonisation as a theoretical paradigm took its shape towards the end of the Cold war, when intellectuals became increasingly aware of the limitations of the postcolonial theory, which formed in 1960-1970s. While postcolonial theory is closely tied to anticolonial movements for the independence of former colonies of Western empires, decolonial theory primarily aims at the critique of epistemological process of knowledge production as well as critique of modernity as such, after all modernity is seen as the main cause of colonial relations and inequalities, racism and violence related to colonialism. Decolonial theory indicates that perfect institutions, created by modernity (the ideas of progress, development, system of education and science, government and others) in themselves carry the inequalities produced by colonialism.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Decolonial theory started in South America and among the South American diaspora in the USA (Ramon Grosfoguel, Walter Mignolo, Enrique Dussel, Arturo Escobar, Maria Lugones, Gloria Anzaldua). Theorists of the decolonial paradigm introduced the notion of decoloniality to emphasise a particular state of those societies, that even after acquiring independence as a result of anticolonial movements remain under the influence of power relationships that formed during the colonial period<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.dukeupress.edu\/on-decoloniality\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">On Decoloniality: Concepts Analytics Praxis. Walter D. Mignolo and Catherine E. Walsh. Duke University Press, 2018<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">).<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> Decolonial theory pays particular attention to activism, where the process of theory development is seen as a gesture calling for a change in the accepted and internalised knowledge.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Focusing on the critique of modernity, the decolonial approach rejects any kind of universalist ideas and focuses on explanations and perceptions of specific societies or groups. Because of this reasons theorists of the decolonial paradigm pay particular attention to local epistemologies<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/religiousstudies.yale.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/files\/Mignolo%2C%20Geopolitics%20of%20Sensing%20and%20Knowing.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Walter D Mignolo (2011) Geopolitics of sensing and knowing: on (de)coloniality, border thinking and epistemic disobedience, Postcolonial Studies, 14:3, 273-283<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">).<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> In addition to epistemology, decolonial theorists pay special attention to aesthetics, and hence to analysis of art. Art created under the influence of decolonial theory, in turn often becomes an integral part of activism that undermines outdated epistemological frameworks.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Decolonial theory came to be used in the analysis of societies that had been part of the Soviet Union relatively recently. Madina Tlostanova proposed this approach in her analysis of the USSR and Central Asian countries <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.amazon.com\/Learning-Unlearn-Decolonial-Reflections-Transoceanic\/dp\/0814211887#:~:text=Editorial%20Reviews-,Learning%20to%20Unlearn%3A%20Decolonial%20Reflections%20from%20Eurasia%20and%20the%20Americas,the%20position%20of%20border%20epistemology\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Learning to Unlearn: Decolonial Reflections from Eurasia and the Americas<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">).<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/svitlanabiedarieva.com\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> Svitlana Biedarieva<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=HnfPYZOzXJo&amp;t\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Kateryna Botanova<\/span><\/a> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">used decolonial theory to analyse Ukrainian art. In Ukraine discussions about the application of decolonial approach to understanding Ukrainian context became more<\/span> <a href=\"https:\/\/ui.org.ua\/en\/sectors-en\/decolonization-selected-articles-published-in-the-aftermath-of-russias-invasion-of-ukraine\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">active<\/span><\/a> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">after the Russian invasion in February 2022. However, the application of the decolonial approach in Ukraine in spheres other than art criticism is only beginning. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Yulia Yurchuk)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"deposit-of-memory\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Deposit of Memory<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ukr. <a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Deposit_of_Memory\"><i>\u0414\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0442 \u043f\u0430\u043c\u2019\u044f\u0442\u0456\u00a0<\/i><\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A historical narrative that is invisible for a period of time, but can be reactivated under political circumstances that require societal mobilisation to unite around a common goal.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The French sociologist Georges Mink compared the concept of deposit of memory with Piere Nora\u2019s memory sites <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Lieux de memoire). Lieux de memoire <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">create and consolidate the sense of human identity. In contrast, memory deposits need to be reactivated to produce differences. This reactivation happens either by opening old wounds to set out boundaries or by preventing the creation of boundaries through the use of a dynamic therapy of reconciliation and forgiving.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mink describes a peculiar kind of \u201cdeposits\u201d of reusable resources. Various actors use these deposits to extract symbolic material that strengthen their political standing.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Memory deposits are often used to justify aggression, repressions or \u201ccommercial exchanges\u201d in past traumas. For example, in this way the narrative about the events in 1389 was used as a deposit of memory during the massacre in the Bosnian Srebrenica in 1995. The idea of revenge against muslims was heightened by exploiting the insult of the devastating Christian defeat in the Battle of Kosovo. In this case the deposit was used to divide societies, erasing the experience of centuries of neighbourly life.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Georges Mink analysed the anti-Ukrainian rhetoric of the President of the Russian Federation as an aggressive use of the \u201cdeposit\u201d of victory against Nazism. The sociologist also recalled how with the expansion of the EU to the former communities states numerous \u201cdeposits\u201d of memory were activated. The narrative about the Western betrayal in Yalta (when the Western states agreed to cede the sphere of influence over the future socialist bloc to Stalin) turned out to be the most useful. Remarks about the \u201cYalta betrayal\u201d created space to discuss the Western debt to Central Europe. At that time the memorial politics in the EU was based on gradual unification of memories around the uniqueness of the Holocaust. The postcommunist EU member states sought to include their experience of totalitarianism as one of the discursive bases for EU\u2019s legitimacy.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Victory against Nazism remains a reliable deposit of memory that is used in various ideological paradigms as a justification for various claims by different states. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oksana Dovgopolova)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                                        <div id=\"Ecocide\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Ecocide<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Ecocide\"><b><i>\u0415\u043a\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0434<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Large-scale destruction of flora or fauna, poisoning of the atmosphere or water resources, and other actions which may cause an environmental disaster (Article 441 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The term \u201cecocide\u201d does not have a stable and universal statutory definition yet and has several dimensions, from political\/legal and environmental to informational, international and criminal ones.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Examples of ecocide include the use of defoliants and deforestation during the Vietnam War; destruction of forests in Indonesia; Chornobyl disaster; deforestation of the Amazon rainforests; destruction of Kakhovka hydropower plant; and in general the consequences of the russian aggression against Ukraine.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The notion of ecocide as a new category and qualification of state actions first appeared in the 1960-70s during the Vietnam War which involved large-scale use of defoliants and environmental destruction. Later on, various initiatives were proposed and implemented to introduce the responsibility of states for ecocide and criminal liability for individuals on both international and local levels.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">These developments, as well as the wider environmental turn in the international relations in the 1970s, led to the adoption of the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%83_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE_%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%8C-%D1%8F%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%88%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%96%D0%B2_%D0%B2%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B2%D1%83_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%89%D0%B5\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (ENMOD) and the introduction in the<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.icrc.org\/sites\/default\/files\/external\/doc\/en\/assets\/files\/other\/icrc_002_0321.pdf\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I)<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> of the prohibition to employ methods or means of warfare which are intended, or may be expected, to cause widespread, long-term and severe damage to the natural environment (Articles 35 and 55 making it, in fact, one of the principles of the international humanitarian law). Similar provisions can also be found in the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.icrc.org\/sites\/default\/files\/external\/doc\/en\/assets\/files\/other\/customary-international-humanitarian-law-i-icrc-eng.pdf\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">customary international humanitarian law<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (Rules 43, 44, 45).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The definition of war crimes in the<\/span> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court<\/span> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(1998) includes \u201cIntentionally launching an attack in the knowledge that such attack will cause\u2026 widespread, long-term and severe damage to the natural environment which would be clearly excessive in relation to the concrete and direct overall military advantage anticipated\u201d (Article 8(2b)(iv)).\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Therefore, the use of warfare methods and means that may result in ecocide has been prohibited and criminalized in the international humanitarian and criminal law, respectively; however, the term \u201cecocide\u201d is not used expressly in either of these sources.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">According to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948), ecocide can also be a viewed as a way of committing <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Genocide\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">genocide<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> by \u201cdeliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part\u201d (Article \u0406\u0406 (\u0441)).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Stop Ecocide International initiative promotes the idea of adding ecocide as the fifth independent category of international crimes in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. The Stop Ecocide Independent Expert Panel for the Legal Definition of Ecocide proposed the following definition of ecocide committed outside armed conflicts: \u201cunlawful or wanton acts committed with knowledge that there is a substantial likelihood of severe and either widespread or long-term damage to the environment being caused by those acts\u201d. The initiative has found support among some states, global leaders, environmentalists, and scientists.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Ecocide is a crime at the national level in several countries, with a general trend of introducing criminal liability for actions that can be qualified as ecocide. Further strengthening of criminal liability for large-scale harm to the environment is currently being discussed in the EU. In November 2023, the participants of the negotiations between the EU Parliament and Council reached a preliminary agreement to revise the EU Environmental Crime Directive with a view to strengthening the protection of ecosystems. According to the EU Parliament Directive adopted in February 2024, the EU member states shall introduce within two years criminal liability for causing large-scale purposeful damage to the environment (\u201ccomparable to ecocide\u201d) with potential imprisonment sentences of up to 10 years.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Ecocide cases are already criminalised at the national level in more than ten countries of the world. Vietnam was among the first countries to introduce the criminal liability for ecocide (1990). Later on, it was criminalised in the post-Soviet countries on the basis of the CIS Model Criminal Code: Georgia (1999), Armenia (2003), Ukraine (2001), Belarus (1999), Kazakhstan (1997), Kyrgyzstan (1997), Moldova (2002), Russian Federation(1996), and Tajikistan (1998). However, there was no actual enforcement of these provisions until 2022. There is also criminal liability for ecocide in Ecuador (2008; 2014) and France (2021).\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the Criminal Code of Ukraine, ecocide is defined as \u0449\u043e \u0432\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u0454\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u044f\u043a \u201clarge-scale destruction of flora or fauna, poisoning of the atmosphere or water resources, or committing other actions that may cause an environmental disaster\u201d (<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/zakon.rada.gov.ua\/laws\/show\/2341-14\/conv#n3053\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Article 441<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">). Such actions are punishable by imprisonment for a term of eight to fifteen years. However, there is no definition of \u201cenvironmental disaster\u201d in the Ukrainian law. The interpretation gap may be bridged by using the criteria of \u201cwidespread, long-lasting, and severe\u201d damage to the natural environment in accordance with the Protocol \u0406 and ENMOD.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">There are currently 15 open criminal proceedings in Ukraine related to actions committed by agents of the Russian Federation, which are qualified as ecocide in accordance with Article 441 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine. In particular, these cases include the destruction of Kakhovska HPP dam and the shelling\/bombing of the Nuclear Subcritical Installation \u201cNeutron Source\u201d at the National Scientific Centre \u201cKharkiv Physical Technical Institute\u201d.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The importance of ensuring environmental safety and security and countering environmental consequences of the war is emphasized in Point 8 of the Peace Formula of the President of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelensky. One of the priorities of the Environmental Compact for Ukraine prepared by the High-Level Working Group on the Environmental Consequences of the War is to ensure inevitable accountability for the \u201cmassive environmental destruction wrought by Russian forces\u201d (Priority 2). The Environmental Compact also includes the following recommendation: \u201cThe Assembly of States Parties to the ICC should consider incorporating ecocide as a core international crime within the Rome Statute. This would strengthen the possibility of justice for such crimes in the future\u201d (Recommendation 15). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Tymur Korotkyi, Maksym Popov, Nataliia Hendel)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"empire\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Empire<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ukr. <a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Empire\"><i>\u0406\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0456\u044f\u00a0<\/i><\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The term falls under the latin concept of <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">imperium<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, which referred to the highest executive power in the Roman republic, as delegated by the Roman nation through particular laws to its highest magistrates \u2013 consuls and praetors. Imperium could also be delegated to extraordinary magistrates, especially during wartime. Usurpation of imperium together with the offices of consul, praetor, censor, tribune of the plebs, Pontifex maximus by one person for life with the right to pass it on as inheritance in fact transformed the republic into a monarchy \u2013 a Principate. From this point onward it is customary to refer to the Roman republic as the Roman Empire, even though the Romans themselves continued to consider it a republic.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The statute of the Roman empire fixed the use of the term \u201cempire\u201d in European languages as a term designating the highest form of monarchic state power. However, the boundaries of the term are blurry. Whether a country can be called an empire depends either on the title of its ruler \u2013 an ideological construct that must demonstrate supremacy over all other monarchic rulers, at least in the bounds of a specific region: for example the Persian <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Shahanshah <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(\u201cKing of Kings\u201d), the Indian <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Maharaja <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(great raja, greatest of all rajas), \u2013 or the exceptional nature of power held by the monarch in question in the cosmological order: the Chinese <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Tianzi <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(\u201cSon of Heaven\u201d) and Japanese <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">tenno<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (\u201cheavenly sovereign).\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Successor states to the Roman Empire (Byzantium and the Holy Roman Empire) among other things, naturally, inherited Roman titles of rulers. However, while in the Western Europe the latin title was preserved, the rulers of Byzantium were referred to in greek as \u0392\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03c2 (basileus) \u2013 the title which was used to refer to all the rulers of antiquity, rulers of Hellenistic states and before that states of the Ancient East. The Bulgarian rulers fought for the right to the title of Basileus of Constantinople, yet they translated it to the word similar to the title of the junior co-ruler of the basileus \u2013\u00a0 \u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 (caesares), \u0446\u0463\u0441\u0430\u0440\u044c in old slavonic, later shortened to \u00ab\u0446\u0430\u0440\u00bb (tsar). Because since 927 the Byzantine basileis recognised the Bulgarian rulers as basileis, the title \u201ctsar\u201d came to be seen as a translation of the word \u201cbasileus\u201d both in the meaning of the \u201cemperor\u201d and in its meaning as any kind of monarchic ruler of Ancient East and Greece. Exactly in this range of meanings it moved from Church slavonic to mediaeval Ruthenian language.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">With the fall of Byzantium the metrics began to use the word \u201ctsar\u201d (meaning rulers of an imperial rank) to refer to khans of the Golden Horde, and from the 15th century onwards the grand dukes of Moscow began to claim this title, supporting their claim through gradual annexation of neighbouring principalities and khanates. Thus, the tsar Peter I did not so much as create an empire, as he westernised his title.\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Due to such a complicated history of the \u201cemperor\u2019s\u201d title, it is not correct to define an empire as a country ruled by an emperor. That\u2019s why the approach taken by the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Encyclopedia Britannica<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> seems more apt. An empire is a group of countries ruled by one ruler, one government or one country; a big political entity in which the metropole or a single person-sovereign exerts control over a large territory or a certain number of territories, or nations through formal annexation or various informal variations of domination.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">This way the key feature of an empire is union under a one rule \u2013 ideally, although not necessarily, embodied by a single person \u2013 diverse, multiethnic countries with clear domination by the metropole. Stark features of empires include presence of exploited colonies and imperialist policies, which are expressed through declaration and exertion of dominance over sovereign countries of a particular region, and claims to spheres of influence. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oleg Lugovyi)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"Exoticization\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Exoticization<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Exoticization\"><b><i>\u0415\u043a\u0437\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0456\u044f<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the postcolonial theory, exoticization is the process of romanticizing and fetishizing ethnic, often non-Western cultures and people with the purpose to control and exploit them by the imperial center.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The adjective \u201cexotic\u201d was initially used in botany to denote plants from other parts of the world. However, already in the 16th century its usage in Europe expanded to racial and cultural others, in particular the cultures of indigenous peoples of Africa, South and North America (Turtle Island), and Asia. In the 19th century, \u201cexotic\u201d became the antonym of \u201clocal\u201d and \u201chomely\u201d acquiring the meaning of something without which the \u201clocal\u201d seemed dull and colorless. It was the time when collectors in the metropole brought home rare and valuable materials, textile, crystals, animals, and spices from faraway colonies.\u00a0 The exoticization of the other was closely linked to the development of trade and capitalism.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the introduction to his revolutionary book <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Orientalism<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, the Palestinian-American literary critic Edward W. Sa\u00efd wrote about the discovery of the East through the exoticization of the bodies of its people. In the imagination of European colonists, thus constructed East was the place of fleeting sexual adventures, worrisome memories, and uncharted landscapes full of the unknown. In this sense, exoticization was a tool for political subjugation of the imagined East by the West based on the seduction and docility metaphor. The West was imagined as active and thus masculine, while East passive and feminine.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Although Sa\u00efd did not include any detailed gender analysis in his theory, his ideas about the exoticization of the East with its sexualization and identification with the female body laid the groundwork for later critical theories proposed, in particular, by feminist scholars such as Chandra Mohanty and Lila Abu-Lughod.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Ukrainian context of exoticization can be viewed in several dimensions. First of all, it is the imperial (Russian) view of Ukrainian culture, which Ukrainian literary critic Tamara Hundorova analyzed so aptly in <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mykola Hohol and Colonial Kitsch<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. According to Hundorova, the Russian Empire was crafted the image of the Ukrainian culture as exotic, burlesque, and magical. This cultural exoticization and folk kitsch are tied together inseparably as both these phenomena were helping the metropole to fit Ukraine into the simplified formula of a local ethnic culture.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Such simplified self-image is often internalized by the colonized altering substantially their perception of themselves and their communities. In her thesis <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Wild Music: Ideologies of Exoticism in Two Ukrainian Borderlands<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, a Ukrainian-American scholar Mariya Sonevitsky analyzes how Crimean Tatars and Hutsuls interact with the local, global, and historical construction of the \u201cexotic\u201d through their musical practices. In her view, these ethnic groups have been the objects of exoticization within Ukraine for years due to their borderland identities and cultural otherness. However, she does not posit any binary oppositions between the exoticized and those who exoticize them. Sonevitsky also mentions the use of conscious self-exoticization practices by these groups as a way to preserve their cultural identity and to fight for a place in the Ukrainian and global communities. Therefore, in addition to its role as a tool for subjugation exoticization becomes, to a certain extent, a tool for liberation and preservation. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Yulia Kishchuk)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                                        <div id=\"Frameworks of Memory\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Frameworks of Memory<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Frameworks_of_Memory\"><b><i>\u0420\u0430\u043c\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u0430\u043c\u2019\u044f\u0442\u0456<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The concept of memory frameworks was proposed by the French sociologist Maurice Halbwachs in his book <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Les cadres sociaux de la m\u00e9moire<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (1925).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A memory framework means: 1) a set of reference points (<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">points de rep\u00e8re<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">) defined by a social group, or socially permitted basic recollections forming the <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">frame of a person\u2019s memory (e.g. when the family, friends, community or organization consistently commemorate certain events or people using certain rituals); 2) space and time as social constructs forming the structure of the frame (the events that will be remembered occur at specific times and places); 3) language as the basic and established form of<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Collective_Memory\"> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">collective memory<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, which fun<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ctions as a verbal convention uniting individuals with their communities and giving them the feeling of belonging (names of events and the words used for their description; if the words are lost or if the discussions or publications are stopped, this leads to oblivion).\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The framework is twofold: on the one hand, it works as an external system to which individuals link their own memories (i.e. personal life events are integrated in the social context); on the other hand, the appearance of the framework itself can be the result of an intersubjective composition (social interaction and acknowledgement of the events that become crucial for the self-identification of specific individuals). In fact, the frameworks are multiple and ambivalent formations. Even though they are created by people, they are quite resilient to any changes once they are in place, because each subsequent generation inherits them from the previous one as a self-evident truth. However, the frameworks can be destroyed by forgetting, memory suppression, and erasure.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">According to Halbwachs, the changing interpretations of historical events are largely due to natural social processes, as well<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> as to conscious manipulations. The social memory frameworks are quite dynamic, and their creation and destruction (including transformations) represent the development of collective memory in its specific manifestation models.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In essence, memory frameworks function as constructs that shape social interactions in the context of memory practices. They include the environment, personalities, and the discourse which frame everyone\u2019s memory at both the personal (individual) and group (collective) levels. These levels are interrelated and affect each other. An example of a memory framework is \u201cthe Soviet past\u201d: things, topics, names, and other everyday aspects of that period. In fact, the word \u201cSoviet\u201d itself is a social memory framework set around the recollections of that time (including the \u201cphantom\u201d memories of those who were born after 1991)<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Alla Petrenko-Lysak)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                                        <div id=\"genocide\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Genocide<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ukr. <a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Genocide\"><i>\u0413\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0434\u00a0<\/i><\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">An international crime, constituted by the actions that have an aim to destroy in whole or in part any national, ethnic, racial or religious group as such. The norm that bans genocide internationally is among the imperative norms of international law.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The term \u201cgenocide\u201d has moved beyond the internal-legal discourse and is used rather widely in political-legal contexts and historical research. The concept of genocide is widely used in texts about the crimes of the past and in some cases serves as a basis for collective identities and forms state policies. It is important to understand its legal nature, to make sure the concept is appropriately used for work with historical data.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The concept of \u201cgenocide\u201d was first proposed by Rafael Lemkin in 1944, who since early 1930s has been working on conceptualising a crime against a group of people united by some shared characteristics. Lemkin\u2019s concept took its final shape in the process of analysing Nazi crimes.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The crime of genocide was fixed as a separate type of an international crime with the passing of the UN <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">in 1948. Currently, <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/treaties.un.org\/pages\/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&amp;mtdsg_no=IV-1&amp;chapter=4&amp;clang=_en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">153 countries<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> are parties to the convention.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">According to the article II of the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/en\/genocideprevention\/documents\/atrocity-crimes\/Doc.1_Convention%20on%20the%20Prevention%20and%20Punishment%20of%20the%20Crime%20of%20Genocide.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Convention<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> \u201c&#8230; genocide means any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such:(a) Killing members of the group; (b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; (c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; (d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; (e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Convention of 1948 sets the international legal responsibility of states for violations of corresponding international commitments, and an obligation for states to prosecute individuals for the crime of genocide and the possibility to prosecute individuals by an international criminal court. However, the Convention does not foresee specific legal mechanisms for prosecution on an international level.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">International criminal responsibility of individuals for genocide and corresponding mechanisms for prosecution were fixed in the article 4 (2) of the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.icty.org\/x\/file\/Legal%20Library\/Statute\/statute_sept09_en.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia,<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> article 2 (2) of the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/legal.un.org\/avl\/pdf\/ha\/ictr_EF.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. The article 6 of the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.icc-cpi.int\/sites\/default\/files\/RS-Eng.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Rome statute of the International Criminal Court<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> is dedicated to genocide.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In most countries, criminal law as a rule includes a prohibition of genocide (for example article 422 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine. The principle of universal jurisdiction applies to the crime of genocide, meaning that any state can apply its jurisdiction to prosecuting the crime of genocide regardless of where it was committed and regardless of the nationality of its victims. Some states expand their national criminal codes and judicial practice to expand the sphere of the crime of genocide to include social and political groups as protected.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The first time the concept of \u201cgenocide\u201d was used in legal practice was in the final indictment of the Nuremberg trials, however in the final sentence the crimes were classified as crimes against humanity. The Nuremberg International Military Tribunal on the Holocaust influenced the concept of the crime of genocide in the international law. The process against Adolf Eichmann in 1961 was important in qualifying the crimes against the Jewish nation. The sentences for the crime of genocide were passed by the international criminal institutions against Jean-Paul Akayesu and Jean Kambanda in 1998 by the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (genocide against Tutsis), Radislav Krstic (2001) and Radko Mladic (2017) by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (genocide in Srebrenica). At present the International Criminal Court is investigating several cases regarding the crime of genocide (Omar al-Bashir case on genocide in Darfur, situation in Myanmar).\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The International Court of Justice of the UN in 2007 was hearing the case \u201c<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Bosnia and Herzegovina v Serbia and Montenegro\u201d applying the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, which concluded that \u201c<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">the acts committed at Srebrenica falling within Article II <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(a)<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(b) <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">of the Convention were committed with the specific intent to destroy in part the group of the Muslims of Bosnia and Herzegovina as such; and accordingly that these were acts of genocide, committed by members of the VRS in and around Srebrenica from about 13 July 1995.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In its decision of February 3, 2015 in the case \u201cCroatia against Serbia\u201d the International Court of Justice (ICJ) of the UN on the application of the <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide rejected mutual Serbia\u2019s and Croatia\u2019s accusations of genocide (the charges against Serbia in the period from 1991 to 1995 and charges against Croatia for the operation \u201cStorm\u201d), concluding that genocidal intent cannot be proven.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the case \u201cGambia against Myanmar\u201d on the application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide the ICJ <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">issued an order &#8220;indicatating&#8221; provisional measures regarding Myanmar\u2019s obligation towards the members of the Rohingya group to guarantee the prevention of any kind of acts that fall under the <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The definition of the crime of genocide foresees the protection of not only physical, but also social existence of a group. The crime of genocide foresees the presense of genocidal intent. Even though, the crime of genocide presumes attacks on individuals, these particular individuals are attacked due to their belonging to a protected group. Hence, the presence of intent to destroy the group is the fundamental component of the crime of genocide.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Acts that comprise the crime of genocide can at the same time comprise war crimes or crimes against humanity. In this case all necessary legal norms need to be employed simultaneously, taking into account different contextual components of these crimes.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The political-legal recognition of past events as genocide is done through decisions of international organizations and national parliaments.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Ukrainian law \u201cOn Holodomor of the years 1932-1933 in Ukraine\u201d, recognizes Holodomor as genocide of the Ukrainian nation. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Timur Korotkyi)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"ghetto-parks\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Ghetto-parks, Socialist Heritage Parks <\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ukr.<a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Ghetto_Parks\"><i> \u0413\u0435\u0442\u0442\u043e-\u043f\u0430\u0440\u043a\u0438<\/i><\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A specific way to preserve and display socialist-period monuments in former socialist countries. Monuments taken out of the public urban spaces lose their ideological function and appear like residents of a ghetto. Hence the ironic title \u2013 ghetto-parks.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">After the political transformations of the late 1980s, societies of the former socialist states felt the need to clean their public spaces from numerous soviet or communist monuments. A firm approach was taken in Hungary. Right after 1989, the monuments from Budapest were dismantled and moved to the city\u2019s outskirts, where in 1993 the \u201cMemento\u201d open air museum was opened. It is a state-managed park designed following the same concept as the \u201cHouse of Terror\u201d \u2013 a museum dedicated to the crimes of totalitarian regimes in Budapest. Various attractions of the sort of a telephone booth for calling soviet leaders are among the objects on display in \u201cMemento\u201d.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Irony is consciously integrated into the concept of the \u201cGr\u016btas\u201d park in Lithuania, located near Druskininkai. The place is jokingly called \u201cLeninland\u201d or \u201cStalinworld\u201d reflecting the popular attitude to these parks as \u201cDisneylands of communism\u201d. The park was created in 2001 by the businessman Viliumas Malinauskas, who gathered more than 100 soviet monuments in the park. Visiting the park is a form of entertainment: the territory of the park is fenced with barbed wire, watchtowers are located on the sides and soviet music plays inside. The entrance to the park is akin to a gate to a military base. The parks\u2019 restaurant is full of allusions to the poor diet of the soviet period, including such menu items as borshch \u201cNostalgia\u201d served from typical aluminium bowls, or meatballs \u201cGoodbye my youth\u201d with buckwheat, the \u201cRussian\u201d herring etc. The ironic menu alludes to the fact that such food can only be eaten as a joke, but not in real life.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Using the language of irony \u201cMemento\u201d and \u201cGr\u016btas\u201d represent the socialist past as something foreign, alien \u2013 that existed on the territory of these countries for a while, but went away without a trace.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In other countries that were part of the Soviet Union the creation of \u201cghetto parks&#8221; presents a stark contrast to the two cases discussed above, although similar examples exist in Ukraine to Kazakhstan. In spite of losing their ritual functions, in many countries soviet monuments still stayed in their original places after the fall of communism. In Ukraine the policy of decommunisation obliged local authorities to remove communist monuments, which led to a creation of the park of socialist statues in the village Frumushika-Nova. Another Soviet period park, dedicated to the partisan glory is on the territory of a nature reserve \u201cSpadshchanskyi forest\u201d. While in countries of the former communist bloc parks with socialist statues are spaces for entertainment, attraction, in post-soviet countries such places are true \u2018ghetto-parks\u2019 \u2013 places to which sculptures are exiled and forgotten without conceptualising their further existence. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oksana Dovgopolova)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                                        <div id=\"historiographic-turn-in-art \"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Historiographic Turn in Art <\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ukr.<a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Historiographic_Turn\"><i> \u0406\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0456\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0456\u0447\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0442 \u0443 \u043c\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0446\u0442\u0432\u0456<\/i><\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A tendency characterised by artists\u2019 focus on history, observed in contemporary art, curatorial practice and art criticism in the early 21st century. In contrast to the focus on the future that characterised artistic practices of the 20th century, the historiographic turn directs attention towards the past. The artistic expression is constructed from a position of rethinking and rewriting the official historical narratives through local and personal stories; revision of archival materials and reconstruction or replay of the events that in earlier periods were located in the periphery of grand Histories; revision of the artistic cannon and colonial heritage, as well as identification of ruptures that emerged between the contemporary artists and historical avant garde.\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The term was first introduced in 2009 by the curator Dieter Roelstraete in his essay \u201c<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.ncl.ac.uk\/christianmieves\/files\/2020\/03\/Roelstrate_The_Way_of_Shovel.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Way of the Shovel: On the Archeological Imaginary in Art<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201d. In 2013 theoretical explorations grew into the exhibition \u201c<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/mcachicago.org\/Exhibitions\/2013\/The-Way-Of-The-Shovel-Art-As-Archaeology\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Way of the Shovel: Art as Archaeology<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201d in the <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago that presented works by 34 male and female artists from Europe, USA, Canada and Mexico. In the text \u201c<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.e-flux.com\/journal\/06\/61402\/after-the-historiographic-turn-current-findings\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">After the Historiographic Turn: Current Findings<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201d (written in the same 2009), Roelstraete connected the artistic interest in the past with September 11 events, and calls the historiographic artistic practices of the 2000s \u201cthe art of the Bush era\u201d. Finally, looking back, Roelstraete saw not only the specific features of the historiographic turn, but also its essential limitations. The practice of rummaging through artefacts in archives and museums or through earth and ruins blurred out the present and led one to conclude that it was impossible to \u201cexcavate the future\u201d.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the Ukrainian context the \u201chistoriographic turn\u201d emerged as an umbrella term that Nikita Kadan (artist and curator) used to describe the general tendency among artists to engage with and delve into history. This umbrella term encompasses the Walter Benjamin\u2019s nonlinear history, the temporal turn aimed at rethinking the legacy of modernity (Kristin Ross), the archival impulse (<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/3397555\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Hal Foster<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">) and the critique of grand meta narratives and memory politics that fall along the lines of reflexive and postcolonial turns. In contrast to the limitations drawn by Roelstraete, the broad definition of the historiographic turn employed by Kadan, allows him to discuss how works of art can have a diagnostic function in the present and to reflect about the revolutionary potential of works of art that allow receiving \u201csignals from the future\u201d. In his text \u201c<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/moscowartmagazine.com\/issue\/72\/article\/1566\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In Place of History<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201d (2018) Kadan elucidates this potential through the figure of an artist as a dilettante and \u201cnobody\u2019s soldier\u201d in the field of history. The position of the dilettante makes the artist akin to any other lay citizen \u2013 an amateur, who carries his or her own personal archive of historical memory that contrasts the government policies. At the same time being a \u201cnobody\u2019s soldier\u201d allows the artist to bypass political debates and rhetorical history battles, drawing strength for artistic expression \u201cfrom these unsolvable questions and conflicts\u201d. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Borys Filonenko)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"holocaust-by-bullets \"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Holocaust by Bullets <\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong><i>Ukr. <a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Holocaust_by_Bullets\">\u0413\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0441\u0442 \u0432\u0456\u0434 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c, \u00ab\u0413\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0441\u0442 \u0434\u043e \u0410\u0443\u0448\u0432\u0456\u0446\u0443\u00bb<\/a><\/i><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A\u00a0 term introduced by the French priest Patrick Desbois to refer to Nazi mass killings of Jews, Roma, and the mentally ill in Eastern Europe right next to the places where they used to live.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Desbois proposed the term \u201cHolocaust by Bullets\u201d because he was certain that most of the world understands Holocaust through the symbol of Auschwitz \u2013 a death camp, where people were brought to from all across Europe and where killing was transformed into the industry of death. Desbois was certain that the events of mass shooting of people right next to their homes have remained in the shadow of Auschwitz \u2013 that in a sense this was a forgotten Holocaust that was perpetrated even before the Wansee conference in January 1942. This first phase of Holocaust was perpetrated primarily through mass shootings, that\u2019s why Desbois proposed the term \u201cHolocaust by bullets\u201d.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The term was criticised as incomplete by other researchers more than once: mass killings were perpetrated by other means or weapons \u2013 not only by shooting at people. However, no better alternative has been proposed and the term continues to be used with these limitations in mind.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Patrick Debois is less of a theorist and more of a practitioner searching for and identifying sites of mass killings, many of which still remain unmarked. Desbois\u2019s book \u201cThe Holocaust by Bullets: A Priest&#8217;s Journey to Uncover the Truth Behind the Murder of 1.5 Million Jews\u201d was translated from French into Ukrainian as \u00ab<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/duh-i-litera.com\/bookstore\/hranitel-spogadiv\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u0425\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0433\u0430\u0434\u0456\u0432. \u041a\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0441\u043b\u0456\u0434\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0413\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0443<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00bb<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and published by Dukh i Litera in 2011. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oksana Dovgopolova)\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                                        <div id=\"language-of-memory\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Language of Memory<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Language_of_Memory\"><b><i>\u041c\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u0430\u043c\u2019\u044f\u0442\u0456<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A system of visual, symbolic, behavioral, and narrative elements that define how a community interprets the past within the framework of the values it sees as fundamental.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The openness\/concealment of historical records and the availability of rigorous historical research are as important to shaping the society\u2019s relationship with the past as the established <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Politics_of_Memory\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">state policy<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> on and society\u2019s own stance toward the past.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The past\u2019s effect on society depends on the actors involved in developing the language of memory. In <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pastfutureart.org\/glossary#Totalitarianism\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">totalitarian<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> societies, only the state actually engages with memory, depriving others of their voice. Consequently, these societies have the so-called \u00e9tatiste language of memory.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00c9tatism believes the state to be the pinnacle of societal development and assumes subservience of society and individuals thereto. Therefore, the \u00e9tatist language of memory gravitates toward superhuman figures of worship. Visually, this translates into monumental memorial objects and markedly grandiose ceremonies, which are organized exclusively by the state and dwarf the individual by their sheer scale: individuals feel elated by becoming one with a great force that guides them into the future.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In non-totalitarian societies, memory actors are the state, society as a whole, and its parts. The language of memory thus becomes human-sized, focusing on the engagement with the memory\u2019s various dimensions (grief, pride, solidarity, loss, and more) and diverse memory objects (the military, civilians, women, and people of all professions, confessions, nationalities, etc.). As a result, memorial spaces emerge that focus not on the didactic acquisition of the \u201conly true message\u201d but on personal experiences and searching for one\u2019s own answers to the questions about the past.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The language of memory can be geared toward society\u2019s mobilization, reconciliation, revenge, mourning, healing, and more.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Wars, political turmoil, and other political cataclysms necessitate change in the language of memory, the development of new ways to talk about the past, and the search for an image of a future that society wants for itself. Therefore, the language of memory is often reflected in a short motto that captures the essence of the relationship with the past and the future, e.g., \u201cWe Can Do It Again,\u201d \u201cNever Again,\u201d \u201cMake America Great Again,\u201d and such. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oksana Dovgopolova)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"liquid-evil \"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Liquid Evil<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ukr.<a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Liquid_Evil\"><i> \u0417\u043b\u043e \u043f\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043d\u0435<\/i><\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">One form of evil, next to banal and transparent evil, used to describe the culture after the Holocaust. The concept was introduced in<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/play.google.com\/books\/reader?id=ge4XDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=GBS.PT1&amp;hl=en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> the book<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> of the same title by Zygmunt Baumann and Leonidas Donskis (2016).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Liquid evil continues in the direction of blurring out of what is essential evident in the concept of transparent evil. If transparent evil claims that evil does not exist (and instead of it there is only \u201cthe other side\u201d), then, accordingly, there is no alternative to the current state of affairs. Reality is stripped off of its utopian dimension. Reality is no longer thought about from the perspective of how things \u201cshould be\u201d and reverts to naked facts. There is no space for even a glimpse of light left between the possibility and reality, instead the intention to \u201cjust do it\u201d rules. According to Bauman, the political credo of liquid evil is exemplified in Margaret Thatcher\u2019s phrase about capitalism: \u201cThere\u2019s no alternative\u201d. Timothy Snyder calls this the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com.ua\/books?id=ZrMyDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1&amp;dq=timothy+snyder+the+road+to+unfreedom&amp;hl=uk&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjT-uKwv4X7AhXi-yoKHZSwBZw4ChDoAXoECAkQAg#v=onepage&amp;q=timothy%20snyder%20the%20road%20to%20unfreedom&amp;f=false\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">politics of inevitability<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. The fall of the USSR and the end of the Cold War shaped a quasihistorical consciousness that the success of the West was predetermined \u2013 that the world was at the end of history (Francis Fukuyama).\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The inevitability prescribes all the \u201cdark sides\u201d to the constructed image of the \u201cOther\u201d. According to this logic, excessive nationalism and ethnic cleansings were something typical to the Balkans, corruption and civilisational backwardness \u2013 were features of Eastern Europe and, in particular, Ukraine. The certainty in one\u2019s moral high ground and impeccability makes the culture of inevitability tolerant of and hence vulnerable to liquid evil, which seeps into this culture and attempts to destroy it from within. The message about the inevitability conveyed by liquid evil together with the message about the non-existence of evil conveyed by transparent evil creates a catastrophic combination for a culture: the idea that there are no alternatives to perpetration of evil. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oleksandr Voroniuk)\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                                        <div id=\"memorial-museum\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Memorial Museum<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ukr. <a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Memorial_Museum\"><i>\u041c\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0440\u0456\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u0435\u0439<\/i><\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A museum dedicated to commemorating the memory of a specific historical event, usually characterised by large-scale suffering, and created with an aim to promote respect for human rights and liberties, tolerance and responsibility for the future (Williams, Paul. \u201cMemorial Museums: the Global Rush to Commemorate Atrocities. Oxford: Berg, 2007).\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The current Ukrainian law \u201cOn museums and museum work\u201d (1995) separates museums into: natural, historic, art museums and others. It does not provide any official definitions of such museums and does not mention \u201cmemorial museums\u201d.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The ministerial decree about \u201cInstructions on organising the records of museum objects\u201d (2016) defines museum profiles based on the contents of their collections. Memorial museums and their subdivisions (including memorial rooms) are supposed to include \u201cobjects that once belonged to a prominent personality (works of art, archival documents, photos, videos etc), to his or her close circle and environment, reconstruct the environment in which the person lived and created, as well as objects dedicated to prominent historical events.\u201d\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The memorial dimension of a museum institution is defined by the presence of objects that are supposed to tell a story about a person who is to be museified. Often memorial museums are created on sites where a prominent person lived or worked (an apartment-museum etc). This way the building itself (house or apartment), and objects it houses become museum exhibits \u2013 drawing the attention to the personal experience of the prominent personality.\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Museums that tell stories about the tragedies of the 20th century (wars, Holocaust, Holodomor, sites of mass killing or incarcerations) \u2013 are a new challenge. The main feature of these museums is their connection to a concrete location where these events took place.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The collections of these museums are largely formed with the participation of witnesses and other participants of these tragic events. The museum exhibitions often clearly condemn the evil acts that had been perpetrated. This contrasts with historic museums where the narratives of museum exhibitions are often devoid of moral judgment.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The International Memorial Museums Charter (2011 edition) adopted by the ICOM International Committee of Memorial Museums in Remembrance of the Victims of Public Crimes, outlines 10 core principles for such museums: a joint culture of remembrance, pluralism, institutional independence of museums, aim to evoke empathy, depiction of personal stores following scholarly principles, addressing the perspective of perpetrators, respect for the historically authentic sites, self-critical reflection of history. The document is oriented towards the UN declaration of Human Rights.<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (Olha Honchar)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"memory-entrepreneurship\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Memory Entrepreneurship<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Memory_Entrepreneurship\"><b><i>\u041f\u0456\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u0454\u043c\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043f\u0430\u043c&#8217;\u044f\u0442\u0456<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A tendency toward opening historically themed commercial establishments (e.g., restaurants) that has been emerging over the last couple of decades.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In contrast to ethnic restaurants, thematic ones (also called heritage restaurants) offer not an ethnic group\u2019s exotic cuisine, but an opportunity to immerse oneself in the atmosphere of a historical period long past. For example, restaurants harking back to the idea of the lost World War II era multiculturality are typical for the post-Soviet space. By establishing them, entrepreneurs respond to the public interest in the historical atmosphere suppressed during the Socialist era. This is the kind of nostalgia that the official <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Politics_of_Memory\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">memory policy<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> does not satisfy in post-socialist countries.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Memory enterprises fall somewhere in between <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Museum\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">museums<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and home cuisine. The restaurants are not high-level culture institutions, and the language they use to represent the past would not pass the scientific facts test. However, they focus on providing a particular experience for visitors, in which they can recognize something they already know (otherwise, a heritage restaurant does not fulfil its purpose), which may lead to the perpetuation of stereotypes.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Sometimes heritage restaurants\u2019 messages, besides being narrow and uncritical, also contain outright false interpretations. They work with emotions and sensory experiences, in which they resemble contemporary museums. Sometimes, heritage restaurants\u2019 specific messages help identify certain trends about the public interest in the past. For example, Eleonora Narvselius <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/uamoderna.com\/md\/narvselius-thematic-restaurants-cee\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">analyzes<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> the gravitation of Ukrainian-Polish border areas toward the multicultural space of Austro-Hungarian heritage, and Oksana Dovgopolova <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/uamoderna.com\/demontazh-pamyati\/dovhopolova-odesa-myth\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">identifies<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> the contours of Odesa\u2019s historical myth.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The broad propagation of theme restaurants is a sign of the commercialization of the past that started in the 1990s, turning everyday consumption of history into entertainment to the point of kitschification. It even gave rise to the term \u201chistorytainment\u201d (history + entertainment) in Memory Studies. Commercial use paradoxically brings into the kitsch plane the appeals to the memory of tragic and traumatic events (in the context of the disappearance of multiculturality, the nostalgia for which manifests in visiting a thematic restaurant). On the other hand, commercial establishments reveal the need within society to get immersed in particular cultural contexts.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">French sociologist Georges Mink sees the concept of memory entrepreneurship as applicable to political activities, describing the phenomenon of \u201ccommemorative diplomacy\u201d as an effort to maximize benefit from \u201cselling\u201d the suffering or heroism of a specific community on the global stage. Georges Mink designates the use of historical arguments in political strategies as the \u201cmemory market,\u201d wherein various actors behave like entrepreneurs. The principles of the EU stipulate consensus in matters of memory, so competitive relations in this regard undermine them. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oksana Dovgopolova)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"memory-mask\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Memory Mask<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Memory_Mask\"><b><i>\u041c\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u0430\u043c&#8217;\u044f\u0442\u0456<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Proposed by Ukrainian historian Alla Kyrydon, this term encompasses the memory bearer\/image and the hidden, secret meaning of memory. Its key idea is that people adapt to the actualized context by hiding their true faces under a mask relevant to the image, declared in connection to a historical event.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The \u201cmask\u201d has a dual nature in that it has an internal aspect (the fluidity of an individual\u2019s reaction to the ever-changing events around them) and an external one (the fluidity of events that change their meaning and are momentary in their interpretations). The masks vary, e.g., by age, gender, education, profession, qualification, territory or place of residence, social standing, wealth, and career. These masks work on the micro (individual, personal), meso (collective, group), and macro (institutional) levels.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Memory masks give a value- and meaning-based reflection of an age and its culture, with their specific social and cultural paradigms and forms of dialogue between the authorities and society. The diversity of memory masks depends on the authorities\u2019 drive to preserve or change the value norms and personal attitudes (of specific individuals or across subcultures). The presence of contradictory memory masks in a society is indicative of the discrepancies between the official worldview (grounded in the concepts and symbols communicated by ideology and culture policy institutions) and alternative ones and their corresponding sociocultural ideas and projects emerging from the critical reflections of individual people.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The memory mask can appear spontaneously (under the influence of the development logic of events and their reinterpreting), intentionally (with a predictable result), or in response to something. Constructing a new memory mask is a reactive process, connected to a potential reaction to interpreting the new mask in the context of the politically instituted versions of events or personalities, the limits of an individiual\u2019s freedom to wear a new mask, on the extent of society\u2019s democratization (diversity of masks allowed by the society at the memory mask carnival), and the apprehension of putting on a mask that differs from the prevalent discourse (carnival).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The mask\u2019s longevity depends on the following factors: conditions under which it appeared, persistence of the traditional perception of a process or phenomenon, emergence of an event, monopolized by the official discourse, the mask\u2019s protective function, the temporal \u201ccondensation\u201d of political processes, and external factors (e.g., foreign policy or geostrategic). As societies change, so do memory masks. The mask wearing scenarios include changing a mask and growing with the new one (as a result of supplanting individual memory, when one replaces one\u2019s own attitude with the collectively articulated one); retouching external features (by hiding one\u2019s attitude in public and shielding oneself with publicly accepted positions, if preserving the individual memory); adjustment (consolidation) of the masks external features to the individual\u2019s memory; and rejection of the mask (the individual sticking to their position and attitudes as a challenge to and protest against the prevalent discourses).<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">For example, people search for memory masks and put them on when the official interpretation and presentation of institutionalized memory (top-down) clash with the concrete individuals\u2019 alternative views, grounded in a critical attitude toward the officially regulated picture of events or images of historical personalities. As if at a masquerade, people or institutions start wearing their memory masks, apparently playing a role instead of sincerely sharing a publicly expressed point of view or attitude. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Alla Petrenko-Lysak)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"memory-culture\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Memory Culture<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Memory_Culture\"><b><i>\u041a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u043f\u0430\u043c\u2019\u044f\u0442\u0456<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A part of a community\u2019s culture, related to preserving, conceptualization, and reproduction of knowledge about its past and the past of other communities meaningful to it, and the forms, ways, and specifics of interaction with that past. It can also be expressed as an aggregate of knowledge, beliefs, customs, rituals, artifacts, objects, spaces, practices, political directives, and traditions of a specific community regarding remembering, conceptualization, and\/or forgetting of the past. The term encompasses all the elements of such a community\u2019s memorial context, from individual or family remembrance practices, creation of genealogical trees, and cemetery rituals to national commemoration days, collective official ceremonies, and state policies (see <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Collective_Memory\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Collective Memory<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">).\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Memory culture actors, as well as culture actors more generally, are all active parties who freely set goals and consciously act in the commemoration domain (e.g., state bodies, civic organizations, museums, universities, and specific artists, writers, and scholars). That said, one can be a recipient of knowledge, a member of the state memory policy\u2019s target audience, a bearer of memorial tradition, or a regular participant in certain rituals or practices, but never influence the memorial landscape as an actor. Likewise, a party may be a memory culture actor and contributor with an influence on the memorial landscape, albeit never pursuing systemic change or engaging in politics of memory (see <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Politics_of_Memory\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Politics of Memory<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In democratic communities, memory culture is open and pluralistic, whereas the state has no monopoly on determining the principles of implementing the official memory policy. Any memory culture actor can thus initiate or support change in the current memory policy. Authoritarian and totalitarian communities tend to subject memory culture in its entirety to the interests of memory policy, monopolizing control, influence, and access thereto (see <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#%D0%90uthoritarianism\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Authoritarianism<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Totalitarianism\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Totalitarianism<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">). Even in totalitarian communities, though, memory culture is always a broader and more multifaceted phenomenon than the official propaganda makes it out to be (see <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Propaganda\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Propaganda<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">), as besides the oppositional collective memory, there exist diverse individual and family memories and memorial practices as well as numerous forms of collective memory that the political system does not regulate or indentify as significant or threatening (see <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Counter_Memory\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Counter Memory<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Nostalgia\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Nostalgia<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Memory_of_Home\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Memory of Home<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, and <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Frameworks_of_Memory\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Frameworks of Memory<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">).<\/span><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"mockumentary\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Mockumentary<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ukr. <a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Mockumentary\"><i>\u041c\u043e\u043a\u2019\u044e\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0456, \u043f\u0441\u0435\u0432\u0434\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0456\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430<\/i><\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A genre of cinema (and of other visual media speaking more broadly) that imitates documentary cinema. The term was most likely invented as late as the 1980s by Rob Reiner for his own film \u201cThis is final Spinal Tap\u201d, however the first examples of mockumentaries appeared much earlier.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In contrast to the fakes or mystifications, the viewer of a mockumentary is fully aware of the fact that the content is ingenuine. In other words, the viewer or listener is invited to take part in an intellectual game. If for some reason the viewer is not aware of the fictional nature of the information presented, mockumentary may be perceived as fake information or disinformation with all the typical implications. An example of such a situation was an early example of a mockumentary \u2013 a radio play of Herbert G. Wells\u2019 novel \u201cThe War of the Worlds\u201d directed in 1938 by Orson Welles.The play imitated a radio-report from an imagined landing site of a Martian fleet causing panic and even chaotic attempts to evacuate by some radio listeners. \u201cLas Hurdes, tierra sin pan\u201d (\u201cLand without Bread\u201d) \u2013 a pseudo-ethnographic 1933 travelogue film by Luis Bunuel is another early early example of a mockumentary.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mockumentaries often appear as part of feature films integrated into the plots of those films \u2013 as pseudo media reports or talking heads on TV. However, they also exist as an independent artistic genre at times addressing quite serious issues, such as the 1971 pseudo scientific documentary \u201cThe Hellstrom Chronicle\u201d (directed by Walon Green and written by David Seltzer it inspired Frank Herbert\u2019s novel \u201cHellstrom&#8217;s Hive\u201d). Another example is a 1971 political pamphlet \u201cPunishment Park\u201d by a British director Peter Watkins. Yet another successful example of a mockumentary is \u201cThe Blair Witch Project\u201d (1999) \u2013 a low-budget horror film by independent directors Daniel Myrick and Eduardo S\u00e1nchez. The film shows fictional documentary material \u201cfilmed\u201d by three film-school students who had gone missing under mysterious circumstances.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In its broadest sense mockumentary is a fictional imitation of any non-fiction media: letters, documentary reports, course transcripts, diaries, official documents etc.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><b>Mockumentary in Ukraine. <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Several artistic projects are associated with the monumentary style. The \u201cMickey Mouse\u2019s Steppe\u201d (2022) by Andriy Rachinskiy and Daniil Revkovskiy \u2013 a duo from Kharkiv, depicts materials from an imagined museum of human civilization created after the collapse of the current civilization. Andryi Dostliev from Luhansk created a pseudo-historical research project (2011) to show that Luhansk in fact does not exist. Another example is Alina Yakubenko\u2019s pseudodocumentary video report \u201cSvetlograd\u201d (2017) \u201cwhich tells a fantastic story about Svetlograd becoming a center of modern art due to unclear and fantastic circumstances connected to the closing of Azot factory.\u201d (Mariia Halina)\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"monumental-propaganda\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Monumental Propaganda<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ukr.<a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Monumental_Propaganda\"><i> \u041c\u043e\u043d\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430<\/i><\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A term used by the communist party of the USSR and soviet art historians to refer to monuments, statues, bas-reliefs and agitational signs in the Soviet Union. Its use began with a document published by Vladimir Lenin on April 13, 1918 that legitimised the destruction of monuments of the \u201cTsarist regime\u201d and encouraged creation of monuments dedicated to the October revolution.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Lenin&#8217;s Plan of &#8220;Monumental Propaganda&#8221; assumed that monuments can be used for educational goals (hence, the use of the word \u201cpropaganda\u201d). In his correspondence with Anatoly Lunacharsky \u2013 People\u2019s Commissar for education of the RSFSR (Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) \u2013 Lenin mentioned that he felt inspired by Tomasso Campanella\u2019s \u201cThe City of the Sun\u201d and his idea of frescoes that can provide visual lessons about nature, history and inspire civic sentiments among youth and thus contribute to education and upbringing of new generations. Nevertheless, Lenin recognised that frescoes are not feasible due to climate, leading the bolsheviks to focus on sculpture.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The \u201cplan\u201d involved creation of monuments to 66 cultural figures, many of whom had no direct relation to socialism. The list reflected Lenin\u2019s vision for the culture of the newly created state that was supposed to rely on certain past achievements as resources for building the future. The list of such past events and personalities included the leaders of the French Revolution that bolsheviks symbolically connected to the October Revolution (even though personally Lenin was critical of many French revolutionaries).\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The \u201cplan\u201d was a utopian project firstly because at that time the Soviet Union lacked both the sculptors as well as materials for building the planned monuments. With these limitations the plan was implemented by students and artists using perishable materials. Monuments also ended up stylistically diverse, some created in futurist or cubist styles. For example, the official \u201capproval\u201d of the \u201cplan\u201d inspired Vladimir Tatlin to design the Tower to the 3rd Communist International. The monuments to Taras Shevchenko (two in Kyiv, one in Moscow and one in Petrograd, none survived to this day) were also created to carry out this top down directive.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201cThe plan\u201d was the first attempt of real-life application of the communist idea of \u201csynthesis of arts\u201d: memorial plaques, inscriptions, ceremonial openings of monuments were accompanied by musical performances enabling the fusion of various artistic media. According to a comment left by Lunacharsky, over time Lenin got disappointed by how the \u201cplan\u201d was implemented in real life, concluding that the monuments failed to live up to their intended propagandistic potential.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The phrase \u201cmonumental propaganda\u201d drifted away from its original use to refer to the practical implementation of the \u201cplan\u201d, but continued to be actively used by Soviet art historians and officials in numerous party documents throughout the whole Soviet period usually to highlight the importance of creating monuments in the socialist realist style. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Polina Baitsym)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                                        <div id=\"politics-of-history\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Politics of History<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ukr. <a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Historical_Policy\"><i>I\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0456\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430<\/i><\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">An area of politics that is concerned with an intentional construction and practical political use of various forms of historical memory and other collectively shared ideas about the past and its representations. Politics of history interferes both with professional historiography as well as history education at schools.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Politics of history is enacted by political, cultural ethnic or other social groups in the fight for, maintenance of or redistribution of power. It is used to ensure political, cultural or other forms of loyalty by large social groups as well as a way to maintain ideological and political control over these groups.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The most prominent feature of politics of history is the political and ideological instrumentalisation of history (an assorted and ordered version of knowledge about the past), and memory. Utilitarian use of history and memory in internal policies, legal and legislative practices, social conflicts and foreign policy is characteristic of politics of history. Politics of history most often appeal to already existing cultural stereotypes or attempt to create new ones. It is specialised in the creation of simulacra, hyperreality that do not simply substitute reality, but are also capable of actively influencing it.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Governmental regulation of content of history education, creation of specialised institutes for propaganda or spread of official versions of the past (such as the Institutes of National Remembrance in Poland, Ukraine, Czechia, and Slovakia, \u201ctruth commissions\u201d in post-totalitarian societies), specialised museums and memorials (for example, the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/holodomormuseum.org.ua\/en\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">National Museum of the Holodomor-Genocide<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, the Museum of Warsaw Rising, House of Terror in Budapest, the Museum of Communism in Prague), passing of laws that regulate the sphere of historical remembrance, permit or forbid certain forms of public interpretation of the past, the control of such interpretations through legal practices (for example, the practice to criminalise \u201cHolocaust denial\u201d in some European countries), creation of international historical commissions and joint history textbooks \u2013 all of these are forms of politics of history.<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (Georgiy Kasianov)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"politics-of-memory\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Politics of Memory, Memory Politics\u00b2<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ukr. <a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Politics_of_Memory\"><i>\u041f\u043e\u043b\u0456\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u0430\u043c\u2019\u044f\u0442\u0456<\/i><\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Bear in mind that this term has two definitions from different authors, marked with I and II.<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>\u0406.<\/strong> Related to \u201cpolitics of history\u201d, yet a narrower term, which covers practices related mostly to formation of collective\/historical memory and does not presume an intervention to the sphere of professional history writing or history education. However, a trend to subjugate history as science to the purposes of constructing historical memory has been observed in recent years. <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In fact, professional historiography, if it functions as a science, is in conflict with memory politics. Memory politics are always selective and promote those forms of historical memory that are necessary for the state or political forces in power. Politics of memory hides or even bans politically undesirable forms of collective memory. In Europe throughout most of the twentieth century memory about colonial politics and its consequences for the indigenous populations was \u201cundesirable\u201d and \u201cunpopular\u201d and it has only become an object of a full-fledged reconstruction in the twenty first century (which itself was a result of political will, related to the growing share of migrants from the former colonies among the population of European countries).\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The most famous example of memory politics in Ukraine is the collective stereotypical imagination about the Holodomor, formed on the basis of memories, historical sources, demographic estimations and fixed in the school curricula, memorial complexes, works of art and literature, and dedicated laws (for example, Ukrainian Law \u201cAbout the Holodomor of the years 1932-1933 in Ukraine\u201d (2006)).\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Another notable example is the memory about the Second World War, which for a certain share of Ukrainian citizens is the memory about the \u201cGreat Patriotic War\u201d. The term \u201cGreat Patriotic War\u201d has been excluded from the official vocabulary of the Ukrainian state since 2015. The title of the 9 May celebration was changed by the law*. These are all results of memory politics. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Georgiy Kasianov)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>\u0406\u0406.<\/strong> Politics of memory is in equal measure a part of the memory culture (see <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Memory_of_Culture\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Memory Culture<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">) and a specific community\u2019s cultural politics, which is an aggregate of ideas, actions, normative documents, and practices aimed at changing or preserving the current memory culture.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The actors in memory of politics are all active parties with free will and purposeful goals who act in the commemoration domain (e.g., state bodies, civic organizations, museums, universities, and specific artists, writers, and scholars). However, primarily politicians, officials, and governmental bodies engage in the politics of memory.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In democratic states, the broadest circle of stakeholders and actors in the appropriate domains participates in shaping and implementing the state memory policy. Therefore, reforms or changes in the official memorial agenda in such countries can be initiated not by the state but by society, the academic community, and other non-state actors. For example, in Ukraine, systematic proposals on the formation of state memory policy regarding the Holodomor, the Holocaust (see <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Holocaust\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Holocaust<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Shoah\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Shoah<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">), the Crimean Tatar genocide, and the condemnation of <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Totalitarianism\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">totalitarian regimes\u2019<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> crimes and past imperial practices first arose in the professional circles of researchers, human rights activists, and ethnic group representatives. Similarly, in the early 20th century, key political narrative concepts of commemorating World War I \u2014specifically the one known as \u201cNever Again\u201d (see <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Language_of_Memory\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">language of memory<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">)\u2014were first proposed by the clerics and promoted by influential intellectuals, and were not accepted by the national governments on the level of respective official resolutions until later (see <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#memorialization\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Memorialization<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#%D0%90uthoritarianism\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">authoritarian<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Totalitarianism\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">totalitarian<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> countries, the state strives to monopolize the shaping of the politics of memory and limit the participation of non-governmental actors in the work on the official commemoration agenda and related political decision-making. Therefore, the politics of memory may be instrumentalized for collective control and propaganda purposes (see <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Propaganda\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Propaganda<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The goal of the politics of memory is not necessarily to objectively conserve or restore the memory of particular past events, especially when that memory is problematic, conflicting, or traumatic. For example, state and non-state actors can direct their efforts toward erasing or avoiding (see <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Social_Amnesia\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Social Amnesia<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">) specific knowledge about the past in the public domain or ousting information that can cause social conflict or tensions. As a result, a space for contradictions between the memory policy and history science, as any form of memory, even if <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Collective_Memory\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">collective<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, is inherently subjective, emotional, and factologically unreliable to some degree, whereas history, like any science, strives to minimize subjectivity, rely on proven facts, and find credible knowledge about the past. Politics of memory thus become the most responsible and constructive only when built on the findings of contemporary history science (and essentially take them into account), encourage honest conceptualization of the past and working through it (specifically via dialogue), and further the community\u2019s awareness of its true identity (see <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Collective_Identity\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Collective Identity<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Collective_Responsibility\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Collective Responsibility<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, and <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Working_Through_the_Past\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Working Through the Past<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Anton Drobovych)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h6><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">*From 1991 to 2015 May 9 was commemorated as the &#8220;Victory Day&#8221;, from 2015 to 2023 it was commemorated as &#8220;Victory Day over Nazism in World War II&#8221;, while in this period May 8 was marked as &#8220;Day of Remembrance and Reconciliation&#8221;, in 2023 the public holiday was transferred to May 8, which became &#8220;Day of Remembrance and Victory against Nazism in the World War II in 1939-1945&#8221;, while May 9 was transformed to &#8220;Europe Day&#8221;.<\/span><\/h6>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"Portal Fantasy, Portal Travelers\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Portal Fantasy, Portal Travelers<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Portal_Fantasy\"><b><i>\u041f\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043f\u043b\u044f\u043d\u0446\u0456, \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e, \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0456<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A type of <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Alternate_History\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">alternate history<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> in which the key factor causing a fork in history is the protagonist who is thrown in the past (usually from the author\u2019s time) and has superior knowledge and skills in comparison to the \u201clocals\u201d. Portal traveling novels often differ from the \u201cconventional\u201d alternate history.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the classic portal traveling literature, the protagonist travels to the past not thanks to the invention of a time machine (this subgenre is called \u201cchrono-opera\u201d), but as a result of some random and incomprehensible factor, as was the case with the first classic portal traveller Hank Morgan in Mark Twain\u2019s <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur\u2019s Court<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (1889). Morgan was teleported to Logres, an imaginary country during the reign of King Arthur, and the novel is to a certain extent a mockery of the lofty st<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">yle of the Arthurian legend which was widely used by Neo-Romanticism. Unlike the classic alternative history in which the thought experiment is often undertaken by serious academics, portal fantasy falls almost entirely into the genre literature category.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the English-language literature of the XX century, portal traveling is often associated with attempts to prevent the global catastrophe of WWII, albeit with varying outcomes. In<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> Lest Darkness Fall<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> written by the American author Lyon Sprague de Camp in 1939, a U.S. archaeologist struck by a lightning, travels from the fascist Italy of 1938 to Rome in 535 CE and helps the Ostrogoths to fend off the Byzantines and the Lombards, thus preventing the onset of the Dark Ages. The novel was received by the contemporaries as an allusion to the political situation in Europe at the time. A more recent example is Stephen Fry\u2019s <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Making History<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (1996) whose protagonist prevents the birth of Hitler by throwing contraceptive pills into a well in Braunau, only to steer history into an even more radical direction.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The term <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">popadantsy<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, which has a somewhat derogatory meaning, was coined by the russian post-Soviet fandom during the early 2000s\u2019 boom of the portal traveling theme in the russian segment of the genre literature. In contrast to the wide popularity of portal traveling in the Western science fiction, only a few such stories or novels were produced in the USSR. The scarcity of such literature and discussions about alternate history in general was due to the Marxist-Leninist theory, according to which events in history are determined by the general laws of the historical process with individuals playing only a very limited role. Given this, the boom of this kind of literature in the post-Soviet russia is an especially interesting phenomenon for sociologists, culturologists, and political scientists. There are currently about 3,000 novels published in russia about the interference of one or a group of protagonists in key events of the russian history leading, of course, to an expansion and rise of the russian empire or the USSR as its successor. Most likely, this surge can be explained by the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Resentment\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ressentiment<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> trauma, as well as the Kremlin <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Propaganda\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">propaganda<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> projects (see<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.dsnews.ua\/ukr\/society\/-mochi-hohlov-kto-takie-popadantsy-i-zachem-kremlyu-druzhba-02022018220000\"> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Dmytro Polyukhovych\u2019s article<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">). In some novels of this kind, rather than traveling to the past physically, the protagonist penetrates into the mind of a certain historical figure to achieve the desired outcomes.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><b>Portal traveling in Ukraine. <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Since such plots are mostly exploited by the mass culture, their examples can be found in the respective segment of Ukrainian literature, e.g. in <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Kyiv Witches<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, the urban fantasy series (started in 2005) of the russian-language writer Lada Luzina. According to the synopsis of <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Master\u2019s Recipe: Revolution of Amazons<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, a book from the series, \u201c\u2026as fate would have it, the three witches settled in the past. One of them became a millionaire, another stole poems from Anna Akhmatova and became the famous poet and pilot Isida of Kyiv, and the third witch became a monk under the name of Hermit Boy. Now, in order to preserve their well-being, they have to cancel the October Revolution so they kidnap the Tsar\u2019s family. But what would be the consequences of this cancellation?\u201d<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Maria Galina)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"postcolonial-theory\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Postcolonial Theory<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ukr. <a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Postcolonial_Studies\"><i>\u041f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0456\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430 \u0442\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0456\u044f\u00a0<\/i><\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A critical approach to the study of culture, literature and history of former colonies and imperial metropoles. Postcolonial theory helps to study the impact and consequences of the socio-political power relationships on the formation of societies that have experienced colonialism.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Postcolonial theory is closely connected with the anticolonial movement for the independence of the former colonies of the Western empires that began after World War II. The anticolonial texts by Frantz Fanon \u201cBlack Skin, White Masks\u201d and \u201cThe Wretched of the Earth\u201d were one of the firsts to lay the foundation for further development of the theory.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Edward Said\u2019s \u201cOrientalism\u201d was a real breakthrough in the formation of postcolonialism as a separate approach to the study of (primarily) literature. Said points out how knowledge is dependent on power structures and demonstrates this through the example of how the West created a system of knowledge about the East and how in its own right this knowledge helps the West maintain its dominant positions towards the East. \u201cOrientalism\u201d gave a push to research that aimed to \u201cdeconstruct\u201d texts from the metropole and point out how these texts recreate the power relationships between colonies and their metropoles. This approach is closely connected with the development of post-structuralism. That\u2019s why postcolonial theorists often rely on texts by Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">One of the most influential theorists of postcolonial theory \u2013 Homi Bhabha \u2013 introduced terms that are most often used in the postcolonial approach: <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">third space of enunciation <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">and <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/ia802702.us.archive.org\/23\/items\/TheLocationOfCultureBHABHA\/the%20location%20of%20culture%20BHABHA.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">hybridity<\/span><\/i><\/a><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">These concepts help understand the particularity of coexistence of anticolonial as well as colonial features in the identities of societies that have experienced colonialism.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak developed postcolonial theory from a feminist perspective. In her work <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201c<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/jan.ucc.nau.edu\/~sj6\/Spivak%20CanTheSubalternSpeak.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Can the Subaltern Speak?<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201d (1988),<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> Spivak showed how women\u2019s history can be viewed from a position of postcolonial theory. Through this work she also began a new field of research called \u201csubaltern studies\u201d that are part of postcolonial studies and focus on the critical study of class and gender inequalities in postcolonial settings.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">For researching Ukraine, the postcolonial theory was first used in the study of literature. <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/research.monash.edu\/en\/publications\/kanon-ta-ikonostas\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Marko Pavlyshyn<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/komubook.com.ua\/projects\/v-obiymakh-imperiyi-literatura-y-imperskyy-dyskurs-vid-napoleonivskoyi-do-postkolonialnoyi-doby\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Myroslav Shkandrij <\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">were one of the first ones who proposed to look at Ukrainian literature from a postcolonial perspective. A book by Eva Thompson \u201cImperial knowledge. Russian Literature and Colonialism\u201d (2000) translated into Ukrainian in 2006 as \u201c<\/span><a href=\"http:\/\/litopys.org.ua\/thompson\/tom.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u0422\u0440\u0443\u0431\u0430\u0434\u0443\u0440\u0438 \u0456\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0456\u0457: \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0456\u0439\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430 \u043b\u0456\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u0456 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0456\u0430\u043b\u0456\u0437\u043c<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201d, in the tradition of \u201cOrientalism\u201d showed how Russian literature circulated imperial discourses, strengthening the Russian imperial regime. <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/krytyka.com\/ua\/reviews\/tranzytna-kultura-symptomy-postkolonialnoyi-travmy\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Tamara Hundorova<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.amazon.com\/Mapping-Postcommunist-Cultures-Ukraine-Globalization\/dp\/0773531238\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Vitaly Chernetsky<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> used postcolonial theory to research wider layers of Ukrainian culture. Over the course of the last decade researchers have also started to use postcolonial theory to study <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/cup.columbia.edu\/book\/writing-the-nation\/9783838216959\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">history of Ukraine<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and culture of memory in the Ukrainian context.<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (Yulia Yurchuk)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"postmemory\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Postmemory<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Postmemory\"><b><i>\u041f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043f\u0430\u043c&#8217;\u044f\u0442\u044c<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Proposed by American scholar Marianne Hirsch, this term denotes the kind of collective ideas about the past that the generation after the one living through a catastrophic experience forms at the rift in collective memory. The concept came to be as a result of her extensive analysis of work on the second-generation memory of the Holocaust.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Marianna Hirsch points out that collective memory development theories do not take into account the situation wherein a catastrophic historical event breaks the usual instruments of reproducing perceptions of the past through the communication between the members of different generations. She sees postmemory not as an idea but as a structure for transmitting traumatic experience from those who bear to the next generations\u2014the post-generations.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The children of those who experienced trauma first-hand inherit their parents\u2019 fearful and unknown past, which the latter do not want to preserve or talk about. This experience manifests in meaningful silence and the presence of external information about the tragedy. The post-generation thus has to make a conscious effort to fill the void. Their idea of the catastrophe is a construct that can dominate personal memories because of its importance.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">According to Hirsch, postmemory is not identical to collective memory. Rather, it is a crutch of sorts for collective ideas. Postmemory combines the images of public space (e.g., photos from a concentration camp may become a part of a privately processed vision of the past) and individual experience, with the public being appropriated by the private and vice versa. Postmemory is not only a way of building a bridge to the unknown past (intergenerational connection), but a way of self-insight for the post-generation members.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Postmemory is created through artistic effort. A shining example of building postmemory is Art Spiegelman\u2019s graphic novel \u201cMaus\u201d and Winfried Sebald\u2019s novel \u201cAusterlitz.\u201d The postmemory constructs function as protective shields that absorb shock, filter the effects of trauma, and reduce its harm. Marianna Hirsch believes that postmemory paradoxically strengthens the living bond between the generation of witnesses and the post-generation. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oksana Dovgopolova)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"public-history\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Public History<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ukr.<a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Public_History\"><i> \u041f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0456\u0447\u043d\u0430 \u0456\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0456\u044f<\/i><\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Transfer of academic knowledge about history into more understandable language aimed at consumption by broad audiences usually through mass media and digital formats.\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The 21st century has become the age of digitalisation and challenges faced by the humanities,\u00a0 among other fields. New formats for working with the past emerged, as well as new methodological approaches to researching this past and new forms of capturing information. It has become difficult to differentiate between theoretical knowledge and its practical application, we observe transformations of history almost on a daily basis \u2013 from halls of academia to historical memes.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Public history is a space for knowledge, entertainment, working through the past, and technological manipulation. The sharing of historical knowledge through non-academic means can be called \u201cpublic history\u201d. It differs from alternative and popular history, because public history is based on real facts, knowledge and verification methods.\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Recent technological developments pose the problem of new forms of knowledge creation, representation of this knowledge to the society and new ways to deliver it to audiences. This is why academics have started to study public history. The institutionalisation of public history globally began in the USA already in the 1970s. One of the key theorists of public history Jerome de Groot claimed that public history \u2013 is not a separate discipline, but an interdisciplinary field, because to understand, study and represent the past requires the knowledge of history, sociology, art history, communication and media studies and other disciplines. This is a serious challenge for both academics and practitioners of public history. That\u2019s why the best representations of history in various public spaces are created by amateurs and \u201cnon-historians\u201d, who are little concerned about issues of responsibility in recreation and construction of the past. This opens the space for politicization, manipulation and distortion of history.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The development of public history in Ukraine began in Lviv, where the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.lvivcenter.org\/en\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Centre for Urban History<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> of Central and Eastern Europe<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, founded in 2004, leads academic and cultural activities uniting research and cultural practices. The institution\u2019s website states that\u00a0 \u201cAs an institute that not only researches the city of the past, but also lives and works in the city of the present, we want to go beyond academic activity and support cultural and other public initiatives\u201d and \u201cin cooperation between academic and other diverse social spaces, we dedicate special attention to issues of heritage, museum practices, digital history, creation of new archives, and ties between art and difficult issues of the past as well as the potential of urban and civic spaces.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">While researching various aspects of public history, and forms of representation of the past, civic initiatives, academics, and other \u201cnon-historians\u201d work with a range of questions, some of which are: \u201cHow to understand what journalists mean?\u201d \u201cWhere does history end and a myth about it begins?\u201d, \u201cWhat manipulative technologies are there?\u201d, \u201cWhy should we talk about history in public spaces at all?\u201d.\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The main tasks of public history are <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">to <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">provide the basic knowledge about representation of the past in public spaces, computer games, feature and documentary cinema,and to teach to use interdisciplinary approaches and methods of historical research for implementation of projects that combine critical rethinking of historical knowledge with understanding of public discussions and perception of the past in contemporary societies. Becoming such an ambassador of history requires development of skills in working with mass media, archives, libraries, museums, tourism and other cultural, education or commercial institutions that are involved in creation of contemporary culture of history.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Another aspect of public history is practical. On the one hand, these are various one-off projects \u2013 such as research dealing with cultural heritage, soviet history, or local history, such as the book <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.lvivcenter.org\/en\/updates\/donbas-company-towns\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">&#8220;Labour, Exhaustion, and Success: company towns of the Donbas&#8221;<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (Lviv, 2018), \u201cHow to speak with kids about history\u201d (\u00ab\u042f\u043a \u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0438 \u0437 \u0434\u0456\u0442\u044c\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e \u0456\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0456\u044e\u00bb), \u201c<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/donbasstudies.org\/about\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Donbas Studies<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201d, \u201c<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/insha-osvita.org\/en\/project\/studii-zhyvoi-istorii-2\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Live History Workshops<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201d, Past\/Future\/Art, <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/mnemonika.org.ua\/en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201cMnemonics\u201d<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. On the other hand, it\u2019s history as entertainment where various technologies, means and forms of representation and presentation of history are used, in particular documentaries, computer or board games, interactive urban maps marking historical sites, comics, animation and exhibitions.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Yet another aspect is related to media. It\u2019s the presence of popular resources about history in the media, such as <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.istpravda.com.ua\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">istpravda.com.ua<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (\u201c\u0406\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0434\u0430\u201d), <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/was.media\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">was.media<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, various online forums, communities or groups on social media, such as \u201c<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/istukrmemes\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Ukrainian History in schemes and memes<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201d (\u201c\u0406\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0456\u044f \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0438 \u0432 \u0441\u0445\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0445 \u0456 \u043c\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0445\u201d), <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/livehistoryworkshop.wordpress.com\/2016\/06\/17\/%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F-%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5-%D0%BF%D1%80\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Kultrenaissance<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (\u201c\u041a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0432\u0456\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f\u201d), \u201c<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/SymbolonCenter\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Symbolon. Centre for medieval and early modern studies<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201d (\u00abSymbolon. \u0426\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u044c\u043e\u0432\u0456\u0447\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0442\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044c\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u0443\u0434\u0456\u0439\u00bb), <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/sufferingmedieval.ru\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Sufferingmedieval.ru<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (\u00ab\u0421\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044c\u0435\u00bb), various youtube channels and other initiatives.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Hence, on the one hand, public history emerges in response to contemporary demands and is a way to disseminate knowledge about the past that the non-professional audience needs. It\u2019s a history that becomes interesting to lay men and women. On the other hand, it is history that may be transformed into a weapon, taking on various forms that can be used to manipulate the mass consciousness, with media platforms as its core battlefield.<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (Anton Liagusha)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                                        <div id=\"reactive-memory \"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Reactive Memory<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ukr.<a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Reactive_Memory\"><i> \u0420\u0435\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0430\u043c\u2019\u044f\u0442\u044c<\/i><\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A type of collective memory that is used for political gains by employing narratives about the past to address current political issues.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In some cases the mythologized past can mobilise more effectively than economic or political issues. Launching reactive memory requires a layer of \u201cdormant\u201d collective memory that could potentially be awakened <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(reactivated).<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> For example, Germany&#8217;s defeat in the First World War contained a potential to feed the development of revanchist moods. Active promotion of a narrative about \u201cthe true path of history\u201d made it easier for the Nazis to garner support for a war of aggression.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Over the course of several years the president of the Russian Federation used reactive memory to mobilise Russians for the war against Ukraine. The narrative pattern of eternal victory against fascism was exploited in a way that allowed to designate anyone who Russia was fighting as \u201cfascist\u201d.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">According to the French sociologist Georges Mink, reactive memory serves as a reusable resource in contemporary political battles. Mink suggests that the concept of deposit of memory that can be reactivated, by reviving problematic or divisive narratives about the past, regardless of the fact that the problems that had triggered past conflicts may have been resolved a long time ago. A classic example of reactive memory is the Victory against Nazism, that still remains an important trump card in geopolitical competition for legitimacy. According to Mink, reactive memory is also invoked to mobilise certain identity reflexes, the \u201cgreat Russian\u201d as well as anti-Russian, depending on the country where it is used. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oksana Dovgopolova)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"Reconciliation\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Reconciliation<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Reconciliation\"><b><i>\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Building a common vision of the future in societies with a traumatic past, which includes the recognition of past crimes, restoration of dignity of the victims, and the commitment to do everything possible in order to prevent the repetition of the crimes in the future. Social reconciliation is not a synonym of <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pastfutureart.org\/glossary#Forgiveness\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">forgiveness<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Social reconciliation is about finding a way to live on once<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> the conflict is over (and the nature of the conflict in question can vary greatly, from civil clashes to ext<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ernal aggression).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The \u201creconciliation\u201d between countries or societies is possible after the mutual recognition of past crimes. An example of such post-conflict reconciliation b<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">etween nations can be the efforts\u00a0 of German and Polish bishops who engaged in an exchange of open letters from 1954 to 1968 under the common motto <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">We Forgive and Ask for Forgiveness<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Each s<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ide acknowledged its responsibility for certain actions of its respective state and shared its vision of the possible future coexistence. It was a powerful gesture in the context of asking for forgiveness when the Chancellor of West Germany Willy Brandt knelt before the monument to the victims of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in 1970.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Reconciliation is not an attempt to put oneself above the conflict, to remain silent about traumas and crime, or not to touch the past. It involves <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pastfutureart.org\/glossary#Working_Through_the_Past\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">working with the past<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and identifying clearly the key values and \u201cred lines\u201d around the topics and behavior that will not be tolerated in the society. Any attempts to achieve reconciliation through silence would just postpone the conflict instead of resolving it so it would continue to exist at the level of the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pastfutureart.org\/glossary#Memory_Archive\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">memory archive<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pastfutureart.org\/glossary#Resentment\"> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ressentiment<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Many countries have already demonstrated the importance of reconciliation and working with the past since the 1990s. And this is not only countries after hot conflicts. For example, Canada is now actively working on reconciliation issues and specialized reconciliation ministries or departments have been created in Australia, Rwanda, Fiji, and Solomon Islands.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">According to the preamble of the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/undocs.org\/Home\/Mobile?FinalSymbol=E%2FCN.4%2F2005%2F102%2FAdd.1&amp;Language=E&amp;DeviceType=Desktop&amp;LangRequested=False\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Updated Set of principles for the protection and promotion of human rights through action to combat impunity<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, which was adopted at the 61st Session of the UN Commission on Human Rights (2005), there can be no just and lasting reconciliation unless the need for justice is effectively satisfied. Furthermore, forgiveness, which may be an important element of reconciliation, implies, insofar as it is a <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">private act<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, that the perpetrator has acknowledged his or her deeds. Therefore, reconciliation has nothing to do with turning a blind eye to crimes committed in the past. Any discussions of reconciliation can start only after the right to justice has been secured.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The track record of the reconciliation and <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pastfutureart.org\/glossary#Truth_Commissions\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">truth commissions<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> in South Africa or Rwanda indicates that domestic reconciliation is a complex and multi-vector process involving reforms and dialogue initiatives, as well as the truth discovery and qualification of crimes. The establis<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">hment of such truth and reconciliation commissions is to a large extent driven by the need to prevent uncontrolled revenge.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) in South Africa was established in 1995 and became a showcase initiative aimed at civil reconciliation after a long period of apartheid crimes and in general the colonial existence of South Africa. The ultimate objective of the initiative was to create pre-conditions for the development of the society on the basis of a new set of values rather than to just punish the perpetrators (the Nuremberg paradigm). The President of South Africa Nelson Mandela together with the TRC Chairman Desmond Tutu proposed a new operating format for the commission. It was for the first time in the history of such commissions that: \u0430) the hearings were held publicly; and b) the criminals also had to testify, not only the victims. Specific conditions were established for the amnesty of criminals (subject to provision of information) and reparations for the victims. Members of the TRC were elected through open national consultations with a view to including representatives of all political parties, civil society, and religious organizations. A coalition of more than 50 organizations took part in the public dialogue. Therefore, the commission created a proper space for reconciliation for all South Africans.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The recognition of the need for reconciliation processes both inside countries and between nations fosters the development of the guilt acceptance culture. Political leaders acknowledge the guilt of their states in the past for the sake of future reconciliation. Former colonizers are making symbolic gestures of reconciliation with peoples whose life was changed forever. Canada is developing a multi-cultural paradigm in order to sustain the identity of its indigenous people. Political leaders, including in Ukraine, are making<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> political statements to admit the past guilt. In particular, President Petro Poroshenko made a statement in the Polish Sejm about the participation of Ukrainians in the Volyn tragedy and in the Knesset about the collaboration during the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pastfutureart.org\/glossary#Holocaust\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Holocaust<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. More recently, the French President Emman<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">uel Macron admitted France\u2019s partial responsibility for the genocide in Rwanda.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In commemorative practices, reconciliation gestures may take various forms. For example, the installation in London to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the beginning of World War I was made of 888,246 ceramic poppies. This number included all WWI casualties of Great Britain, including in the colonies, as a way to recognize the common pain and to accept the responsibility for the deaths of these people. Reconciliation is a necessary element of worldviews based on the value of human rights. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oksana Dovhopolova)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                                        <div id=\"Solastalgia\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Solastalgia<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Solastalgia\"><b><i>\u0421\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0433\u0456\u044f<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A neologism describing a form of emotional or existential distress caused by changes in the environment.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The concept was proposed in 2005 b<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">y the philosoph<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">er Glenn Albrecht who studied the connection between environmental ecosystems and human psychological conditions. Solastalgia as a term means human experience in the form of sadness caused by changes in the environment. It is close to <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pastfutureart.org\/glossary#Nostalgia\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">nostalgia<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, but in the case of solastalgia the sadness is not caused by being far away from home or another place to which the person is attached. Albrecht defines solastalgia as homesickness when someone remains at home, but the environment has changed in a way that makes them feel sad. Such changes may be caused not only by the global climate change and transformations resulting from human activity, but also by more local events, such as urbicide and <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pastfutureart.org\/glossary#Domicide\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">domicide<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Unlike the nostalgic distress caused by being away from home, the solastalgic distress is experienced by someone who stays at home, but witnesses changes in the environment. Solastalgia may also be related to a loss of historical heritage due to an environmental crisis or destruction.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">According to Albrecht\u2019s theory, the societies whose livelihoods are closely linked to the environment are more prone to solastalgia and vice versa. It mean<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">s that the communities that have a significant dependence on agri- or ecosystems are especially vulnerable in this respect. For example, people in a village witnessing anthropogenic or technogenic impacts on their environment, may miss the reality in which the rivers were deep and clear, the forest was full of diverse plants and animals, and the farm, club, stadium or other local fa<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">cilities were in a good working condition.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">War is another example. It is a disaster that destroys the ecosystem of human life, the living space of people. Destroyed cities, fields, dams, roads, bridges, schools, museums, and shops are the triggers of distress causing the destruction of the ecosystem of the human life environment. Changes in the environment due to war bring about negative emotional reactions associated with the feeling of powerlessness vis-a-vis the destruction. The loss by an individual or a social group of confidence in the environment, which used to be familiar and predictable, is the first stage of the development of solastalgia. People who remain in their town or village during the war and witness the destruction of the familiar space start to miss their pre-war home and environment. The ecosystem of everyday life is destroyed by the air raid sirens, explosions, and devastation. Therefore, if nostalgia is the sadness related to the past that<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> is gone, solastalgia is the sadness in the present caused by the lost peace of mind, confidence, and the possibility to make plans for the future. It is when current events are going to turn into future heavy memories and this is already clear for the person going through such events. This is, in other words, a pre-trauma memory.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">An example of solastalgia is the history of Kakhovka dam which affected the local population twice, first during its construction in the Soviet time, which involved the flooding of the local villages, and then after its destruction by the russian army in 2023, which changed the usual landscape again.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In Albrecht\u2019s opinion<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, solastalgia may lea<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">d to the loss of individual or <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Collective_Identity\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">group identity<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, as a result of which the individual or community may feel confused and unable to control their environment, their own life, and, ultimately, the future of their community. However, he indicates that the negative effects of solastalgia, as well as those of<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> nostalgia, may be mitigated by the restoration of the balance between the individual and their transformed environment, rebuilding of the severed connections that used to tie the local community together, an<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">d renewal of the biophysical environment at all levels, from houses and neighbourhoods to cities and regions.<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (Alla Petrenko-Lysak)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"Special Tribunal for the \u0421rime of Aggression against Ukraine\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Special Tribunal for the \u0421rime of Aggression against Ukraine<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Special_Tribunal\"><b><i>\u0421\u043f\u0435\u0446\u0456\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0440\u0438\u0431\u0443\u043d\u0430\u043b \u0449\u043e\u0434\u043e \u0437\u043b\u043e\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0443 \u0430\u0433\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0456\u0457 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0438<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">An international <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ad hoc<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> judicial mechanism for bringing individuals to criminal liability for the aggression against Ukraine.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The establishment of the Special Tribunal fo<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">r the Crime of Aggression against Ukraine is necessary for ensuring the inevitability of punishment for the crime of <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Aggression\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">aggression<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> committed by the Russian political and military leaders. By virtue of their official position, these persons have personal and\/or functional immunity from criminal prosecution by other countries according to customary international law. The personal immunity of the President, Prime Minister, and the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation can be overcome by international criminal courts and tribunals. However, the existing International Criminal Court has no jurisdiction to investigate and prosecute the crime of aggression committed by the leaders of the Russian Federation against Ukraine, unlike other international crimes (<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Genocide\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">genocide<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">,<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Against_Humanity\"> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">crimes against<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> humanity<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, war crimes). Therefore, creating the Special Tribunal for the Crime of Aggression against Ukraine as a separate international judicial body is the only legitimate way to overcome the immunities of the highest political leadership and the functional immunities of other political and military leaders of the Russian Federation.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The idea to establish the Special Tribunal was proposed by the well-known British international law ex<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">pert Professor Philippe Sands in late February 2022. The project to create the new tribunal was announced on 4 March 2022 at an online conference of the Chatham House. It was supported by more than 140 leading international law experts, former judges and prosecutors of international criminal courts and tribunals, as well as by many former heads of states and governments. As of 19 March 2024 the petition to create the Special Tribunal already had more than 2 million signatures.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The establishment of the Special Tribunal for the Crime of Aggression against Ukraine is envisaged by Point 7 (<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Restoration of Justice<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">) of the Peace Formula of the President of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelensky. In the Address of the Verkhovna Rada to the EU Member States and Institutions to Support Granting Ukraine the EU Candidate Status dated 19 June 2022, Ukraine called upon the EU as the regional leader to take part in the preparations for the establishment and the establishment of the Special Tribunal with a view to investigating the crime of aggression against Ukraine and bringing representatives of the highest political and military leadership of the Russian Federation to liability for it. On 7 October 2022 the Verkhovna Rada approved a decree calling upon the international community to support the establishment of the Special Tribunal for the Crime of Aggression against Ukraine. On 20 March 2023 the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine approved the Statement of the need to ensure the bringing to liability of the individuals who committed the gravest crimes on the territory of Ukraine under the internati<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">onal law.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The establishment of the Special Tribunal is supported by numerous resolutions of the PACE, European Parliament, NATO PA, OSCE PA, the European Council, the Parliaments of Lithuania, Estonia, Netherlands, Czech Republic, Latvia, Poland, Slovak Republic, Germany and other countries, as well as by many statements of heads of states and governments.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">On 22 September 2022, the President of Ukraine signed the Decree 661\/2022 \u201cOn the Working Group for Working on the Matter of the Establishment of the Special Tribunal for the Crime of Aggression against Ukraine\u201d. This work is coordinated in Ukraine by the Office of the President and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Working Group has drafted the constituent documents of the Special Tribunal and maintains the communication with legal advisors of the foreign ministries of other countries and international organisations.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Ukraine\u2019s position regarding the establishment of the Special Tribunal is based on the following key principles:\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u2013 The Special Tribunal must be based on the rules and approaches that are used by the International Criminal Court and set forth in the Rome Statute;<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u2013 The jurisdiction of the Special Tribunal must cover all events since February 2014, i.e.\u00a0 from the beginning of the armed aggression of the Russian Federation against Ukraine;<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u2013 The Special Tribunal must have jurisdiction over the individuals who effectively control or directly govern political or military actions of the country;<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u2013 The official status of the defendants (<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">e.g. Head of State or some other public official) shall not protect them from individual criminal liability or mitigate the punishment;<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u2013 The Special Tribunal will be established as an international special criminal <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ad hoc<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> tribunal for the crime of aggression against Ukraine and will deal only w<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ith crimes of aggression against Ukraine.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The legal basis for the establishment and operation of the Special Tribunal and its model are the key and interrelated aspects of this initiative. Although there is no full consensus yet regarding the choice of the model, there are two main options: (1) a special and independent international tribunal based on an international treaty or an agreement between Ukraine and an international organisation; (2) an internationalised court integrated in the national court system of Ukraine or a third country. The possibility to look for and consider other potential models for the establishment of the Special Tribunal is also being actively discussed.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The final choice of the model will depend on the assessment of its viability and effectiveness, as well as on the political will of the international partners to participate in the establishment of the tribunal. The Special Tribunal for the Crime of Aggression against Ukraine will complement, rather than supersede, the work of the ICC. Emphasizing this point is crucial for securing the support of the countries for which supporting the ICC is a priority.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">As regards the legal grounds for the establishment of the Special Tribunal, the current approach is quite flexible and includes several potential options: (1) signing a treaty between the countries that would be willing to accede to it; or (2) an agreement between Ukraine and an international organisation.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The key platform for the search for the most effective mechanism and analysis of legal and technical matters related to the establishment of the Special Tribunal is currently the Core Group, a coalition that as of 19 March 2024 included 40 countries and representatives of several international organisations.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In addition to this, the International Centre for the Prosecution of the Crime of Aggression against Ukraine (ICPA) was created in the Hague, Netherlands, for the coordination of the investigation of the crime of aggression against Ukraine, as well as for ensuring the preservation and safekeeping of evidence for future trials. The ICPA started its operations in July 2023 and is linked to the Joint Investigation Team supported by Eurojust. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Anton Korynevych, Tymur Korotkyi)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"strategic-commemoration\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Strategic Commemoration<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Strategic_Commemoration\"><b><i>\u0421\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u0456\u0447\u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0456\u044f<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Strategic and <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pastfutureart.org\/glossary#Tactical_Commemoration\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">tactical commemoration<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> are the terms proposed by the Past \/ Future \/ Art memory culture platform to specify the fundamental goals, target audience, and implementation timeframes for <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Commemoration\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">commemorative processes<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Strategic commemoration is a complex of long-term societal practices reinforced by the state\u2019s agentive stance, a tool for standardizing the interpretation of historical events and supporting the narrative.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Strategic commemoration practices do not take shape until the immortalized events run their course and become history, meaning that strategic commemoration forms at a certain temporal distance from the events in question and has an overarching goal of involving people without first-hand experience of those events in shaping and sustaining collective memory.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Strategic commemoration practices encompass public commemorative ceremonies (e.g., parades, memory walks, and re-enactments), the formation of museum concepts, the arrangement of the landscape of memory, the development of remembrance event calendars, the disruption-free operation of named scholarships\/institutions, and more. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oksana Dovgopolova)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                                        <div id=\"tactical-commemoration\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Tactical Commemoration<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Tactical_Commemoration\"><b><i>\u0422\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0447\u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0456\u044f<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Tactical and <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pastfutureart.org\/glossary#Strategic_Commemoration\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">strategic commemoration<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> are the terms proposed by the Past \/ Future \/ Art memory culture platform to specify the fundamental goals, target audience, and implementation timeframes for <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Commemoration\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">commemorative processes<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Tactical commemoration is a complex of practices adopted by societies going through traumatic experiences. These practices have a therapeutic or mobilizing significance, shaping the spaces of solidarity, shared grief, or social support.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the situation of trauma, people need to be able to speak out publicly about their grief,\u00a0 show empathy and solidarity, and assert the social significance of their experience. For instance, grassroots memorials emerge at tragedy sites, where people bring the victims\u2019 portraits, flowers, candles, and mementos. Often, tactical commemoration manifests itself in temporary memorials that spring up, reflecting a response to sharp pain.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Some tactical commemoration practices strike root. E.g., during the Russo\u2013Ukrainian War, grassroots memorials to the soldiers killed in action started appearing all over Ukraine as the spaces where people stuck little national flags into the ground. Having started on Kyiv\u2019s Independence Square, the practice gradually spread to other Ukrainian cities. What makes it powerful is that it represents people\u2019s readiness to commemorate their family members, friends, or brothers and sisters in arms on a grassroots level, creating a space where people feel solidarity, share their grief, and show gratitude to the military.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Tactical commemoration also manifests itself in individual commemoration practices, e.g., scholarships established in honor of the deceased or fulfilling someone\u2019s dream. Two excellent examples of those are Nika Generation\u2014an award for young authors established in memory of Veronika Kozhushko, a 19-year-old artist and poet from Kharkiv killed by Russian shelling in 2024\u2014and Memorial Table\u2014Maria Hrabar\u2019s initiative in memory of her KIA husband Illia: every year on August 29 the participating restaurants reserve a table \u201cfor the bravest of us.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A grassroots tactical commemoration practice can fade away or enter the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Memory_Canon\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">memory canon<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and become part of strategic commemoration. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oksana Dovgopolova)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"transitional-justice\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Transitional Justice<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ukr. <a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Transitional_Justice\"><i>\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0445\u0456\u0434\u043d\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0434\u044f, \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0434\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0445\u0456\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0456\u043e\u0434\u0443, \u0422\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0437\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u0430 \u044e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0446\u0456\u044f<\/i><\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A set of principles, processes, measures and practices aimed at restoration of justice for the victims of gross or systematic human rights violations, creation of conditions and possibilities for peacebuilding in the period following conflicts or political transformations from authoritarianism.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Transitional justice is applied in societies or states that are in a post-conflict setting transitioning from a military conflict (including consequences of an occupation) to a state of peace (Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Ukraine and other countries) or are transitioning from an authoritarian regime to a democratic political system (Argentina, South Africa, Chile, and others). The goal of transitional justice is restoration of justice for the victims of authoritarian political regimes or military conflict, creation of necessary conditions for reconciliation in society and conditions for non-recurrence of conflicts in the future. Transitional justice encompasses legal mechanisms and practices in the period of transition, when law is used as both a means for transition and an area of transition, and non-legal mechanisms and practices that include work with collective memory for recognition and acceptance of past experience.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Transitional justice is built on four pillars: truth-seeking about the course of military conflict; institutional reform as a guarantee of non-recurrence of the military conflict; reparations to the victims of the military conflict; and prosecution of persons guilty of committing the gravest crimes (in particular, the crime of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes).\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The key tenets of the transitional justice concept were formulated by the French diplomat Louis Joinet by the initiative of the UN Human Rights Commission and presented to the Commision for consideration in 1997. In 2005 the Commission formulated a finalised the vision for the concept of transitional justice by formulating <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/documents.un.org\/doc\/undoc\/gen\/g05\/109\/00\/pdf\/g0510900.pdf?token=xL1idPh8XPWq0GCLjJ&amp;fe=true\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">38 guiding principles<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, that foresee: the right to know (establishment of commissions of enquiry and preservation of and access to archives); right to justice, including legal measures to combat impunity and institutional forms for administering justice; the right to reparation, including guarantee of non-recurrence (reform of state institutions, reform of laws and institutions contributing to impunity and others). International standards of transitional justice are included into a number of acts and declarations of a recommendational character issued by international organisations, including: <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/digitallibrary.un.org\/record\/107889\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (UN General Assembly resolution 40\/34, 1985), <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/legal.un.org\/avl\/pdf\/ha\/ga_60-147\/ga_60-147_ph_e.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (UN General Assembly Resolution 60\/147, 2005), <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/documents.un.org\/doc\/undoc\/gen\/g05\/109\/00\/pdf\/g0510900.pdf?token=tUhHDh2qOFsFIbWXcb&amp;fe=true\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Report of the independent expert to update the Set of principles to combat impunity, Diane Orentlicher <\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(E\/CN.4\/2005\/102\/Add.1), <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/documents.un.org\/doc\/resolution\/gen\/g09\/165\/92\/pdf\/g0916592.pdf?token=D84ploGJmH1cFhTW49&amp;fe=true\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Human rights and transitional justice<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (Resolution adopted by the UN Human Rights Council <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">12\/11, 2009), <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/documents.un.org\/doc\/resolution\/gen\/g09\/165\/99\/pdf\/g0916599.pdf?token=vVy4l9Z2XH9nKxq2fC&amp;fe=true\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Right to the truth<\/span><\/a> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Resolution adopted by the UN Human Rights Council, 12\/12, 2009), Right to the truth (Resolution adopted by the UN General Assembly, 68\/165, 2013), <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/eeas.europa.eu\/archives\/docs\/top_stories\/pdf\/the_eus_policy_framework_on_support_to_transitional_justice.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">the EU\u2019s Policy Framework on support to transitional justice<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (November 16, 2015), <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/documents.un.org\/doc\/undoc\/gen\/n18\/266\/03\/pdf\/n1826603.pdf?token=eGQpFGNX9o0LaC8s5B&amp;fe=true\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">UN Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion of truth, justice, reparation and guarantees of non-recurrence<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (A\/73\/336, 2018).\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The main criminal prosecution forms for transitional justice are international (international courts and tribunals), hybrid (international\/ hybrid courts and tribunals), and national.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Institutional examples of non-judicial mechanisms for restoration of truth include institutions created in different periods under different names, such as commissions on the disappearance of persons as in Argentina, Uganda and Sri Lanka, truth or truth and reconciliation commissions as in Haiti, Ecuador, Kenya, Mauritius, Paraguay, Peru, South Africa, Togo, Chile. Institutions with different titles were created in Germany, El Salvador, Chad, East Timor, South Korea, Morocco and other countries. The most famous examples of such institutions are the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa, Equity and Reconciliation Commission in Morocco, Commission for Investigation of the Events in and around Srebrenica between 10 and 19 July 1995 (The Srebrenica Commission), Republika Srpska (Bosnia and Herzegovina).\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The transitional justice concept was applied in Argentina, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Indonesia, East Timor, Congo DRC, Columbia, Liberia, Serbia, Chile and other countries.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In Ukraine separate elements of transitional justice are being applied. The Working group on the question of reintegration of temporary occupied territories of the Commission on the questions of the legal reform has developed a project for the Concept of transitional justice for Ukraine (officially \u201cConcept of State policy for protection and restoration of human rights and fundamental freedoms under the conditions of a military conflict on the territory of Ukraine and overcoming of its consequences\u201d). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Timur Korotkyi, Anton Korynevych)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"transparent-evil\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Transparent Evil<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Transparent_Evil\"><b><i>\u0417\u043b\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0437\u043e\u0440\u0435<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">One of the forms of evil in the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Holocaust\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">post-Holocaust<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> culture, alongside the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Banal_Evil\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">banal<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Liquid_Evil\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">liquid<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> evil. For the first time, the concept was formulated in the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com.ua\/books\/about\/The_Transparency_of_Evil.html?id=gnJnZqQCtxEC&amp;redir_esc=y\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">eponymous book by Jean Baudrillard (1990)<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Transparent evil continues banal evil\u2019s direction to equate the victim\u2019s and the executioner\u2019s positions, utterly blurring their status and thus leading to indifference toward them. The evil avoids being defined, disguising itself under such politically correct simulacra as \u201chearing out the other side\u201d and \u201chaving more complex thinking.\u201d The irony of avoidance is that the \u201cotherness\u201d to be heard out becomes irrelevant, completing the circle of transparent evil.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">As radical otherness, evil is conditioned by the rhetoric of political correctness and appeals to reconciliation without admitting responsibility. Transparent evil triumphs when it refuses to be identified as evil, while identifying as evil the very thing that it strives to destroy (e.g., the \u201cfascist rhetoric\u201d toward Ukraine on the part of the Russian \u201cfascism\u201d that designates itself as \u201canti-fascism\u201d). It gives rise to moral relativity and blindness (Zygmunt Bauman, Leonidas Donskis), the point of which is in not recognizing oneself in the other. The culture thus hermetizes through the glamourized astonishment at \u201chow something like that is possible in the 21st century,\u201d losing the courage to call things for what they are. This weakness calls for the \u201cdeal with the Devil\u201d without identifying the latter as the Devil. This deal is grounded in the dichotomy of the lesser and greater evil: choosing to fight the latter with the former, one forgoes the understanding that lesser evil is evil nonetheless (Hannah Arendt).\u00a0 <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oleksandr Voroniuk)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"trench-art \"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Trench Art<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ukr. <a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Trench_Art\"><i>\u041e\u043a\u043e\u043f\u043d\u0435 \u043c\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0446\u0442\u0432\u043e<\/i><\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Genre of museum exhibitions that aims to demonstrate the everyday life of a person at war. Literally, \u201ctrench art\u201d is used to describe decorative objects created by soldiers, prisoners of war or civilians who were drawn into a military conflict.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The objects, when displayed as exhibits, allow the visitors to learn about the feelings of the person \u201cin trenches\u201d, the everyday life in the army, emotions that an individual feels at war. Such objects have been documented since the Napoleonic wars, however the term was coined during the First World War. In the practices of new museology trench art is used in exhibitions to inform the contemporary visitors about war not only through heroic narratives, but also by encounter with the military everyday life creating an emotional connection with people who preserve the desire to create even in the most horrible of circumstances. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oksana Dovgopolova)\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                    <div id=\"truth-commissions\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Truth Commissions<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><b>Ukr. <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Truth_Commissions\"><b><i>\u041a\u043e\u043c\u0456\u0441\u0456\u0457 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0434\u0438<\/i><\/b><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Temporary official non-judicial bodies (governmental or independent) that establish the facts of mass violations of human rights and humanitarian law committed in a particular political situation. These commissions engage with the past, and their activities encompass not one specific event, but a complex thereof. Their mandate may vary depending on the circumstances and society\u2019s needs, albeit its purpose remains the same\u2014allowing victims and their relatives to testify about the crimes committed against them. In some cases, Truth Commissions prepare materials for future court proceedings or tribunals as well as recommendations on preventing repeated crimes, advocate for victims\u2019 right to reparations, and draft memorialization and reconciliation plans. To assert the dignity of victims and their families, Truth Commissions protect the recognition of previously denied truth.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Truth Commissions are the tools for ensuring the right to know as the first element of <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pastfutureart.org\/glossary#Transitional_Justice\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">transitional justice<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. The right to know is recognized by the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ohchr.org\/en\/instruments-mechanisms\/instruments\/international-convention-protection-all-persons-enforced\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, enacted on 23\/12\/2010. The right to know is guaranteed by the state and is grounded in the following principles: the inalienable right to know the truth, the responsibility to preserve memory, the victims\u2019 right to know, and the guarantee to exercise the right to know.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">At its 61st session on February 8, 2005, the UN Commission on Human Rights specified the general principles of Truth Commissions\u2019 operation. The procedure for organizing Truth Commissions must ensure their independence and impartiality. The timeframe for the commissions\u2019 operation must be clearly set, and they must not assume the court\u2019s power. Only the court can establish individual responsibility. The commission can collect testimonies, inspect all places relevant to its power, and request relevant documentation. Also, it must take into account potential danger for the persons involved in the investigation and find a way to legally ensure their security. The commissions must investigate the actions of all those involved in the violation of human rights, whether they committed the crimes personally or issued orders to do so, whether they are state officials or belong to non-governmental armed or other groups. Truth Commissions\u2019 jurisdiction focuses on systematic violations of human rights and humanitarian law, with a particular consideration for violations of vulnerable groups\u2019 rights. They also must ensure the safekeeping of evidence and its handover to the court. To ensure the security of witnesses, a part of the commission\u2019s work is closed, but the final report is published and disseminated as fast as possible.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Presently, the reports of Truth Commissions of <\/span><a href=\"http:\/\/www.cavr-timorleste.org\/en\/chegaReport.htm\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">East Timor<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.aaas.org\/sites\/default\/files\/s3fs-public\/mos_en.pdf\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Guatemala<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, and the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.justice.gov.za\/trc\/report\/finalreport\/Volume%201.pdf\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">South African Republic<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> are publicly available in English. We also recommend consulting the consolidated resources about <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/truthcommissions.humanities.mcmaster.ca\/truth-commission-reports\/\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">reports of Truth Commissions<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> globally. The information about Truth Commissions\u2019 activities is also available on the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.usip.org\/publications\/2011\/03\/truth-commission-digital-collection\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">US Institute of Peace<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> website.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The practice of establishing Truth Commissions started gaining traction in the 1970s, when they were assembled by the Chilean and Argentinian governments. In the 1990s, the UN started providing support to Truth Commissions, with the El Salvador commission becoming the first one to benefit from it. Its report took 8 months to prepare and was published in the spring of 1993. Non-governmental organizations can also contribute to establishing a Truth Commission, as was the case in the South-African Republic (the commission was established on the initiative of the African National Congress) and Rwanda (the commission was established by international non-governmental organizations in response to local civic groups\u2019 demands).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Truth Commissions\u2019 activities precede the court trial. However, most cases were not brought to court, even when the perpetrators were identified. Generally, the sentencing decisions were political in nature, or broad amnesty ensued. However, court trials did take place in Bolivia, Argentina, and Ethiopia. Perpetrators\u2019 names were mostly kept secret (in multiple cases, the publication of perpetrator lists in mass media resulted in popular vengeance).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Despite their apparently limited mandate, Truth Commissions\u2019 activity is of utmost importance in the context of society\u2019s basic values, institutional recognition of crimes (recognition of what was previously denied), restitution of victims\u2019 dignity through public discussion of the traumatic experience, and archiving of evidence. The commissions are tasked with publicly declaring the significance of truth and victims\u2019 dignity, with the official recognition becoming the first step toward healing collective trauma. The names of several Latin American Truth Commissions feature the motto \u201cNunca M\u00e1is\u201d (Never Again).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Truth Commissions can become instrumental to the gradual democratization of society (Chile, South African Republic), negotiating cessation of a civil war (El Salvador), military victory of rebels (Uganda, Chad), and transitioning to democracy after a period of repressive military rule (Argentina, Uruguay). What sets them apart from the more narrowly mandated Commissions of Injury is that Truth Commissions aim to reform society.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Truth Commissions\u2019 goal is to enable future opportunities, so developing a recommendation package regarding judicial, political, and economic reforms is an important part of their work. For this reason, some of them are called <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">truth and reconciliation commissions<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. One iconic example of that is the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, established by the South African president Nelson Mandela and Christian priest Desmond Tutu. The commission was instrumental in preventing a seemingly inevitable wave of bloody vengeance for the apartheid regime\u2019s crimes. It was the first commission to hold public hearings, where both victims and perpetrators gave testimony. The South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission investigated human rights violations that occurred between 1960 and 1994, highlighting the violations\u2019 context and emphasizing the necessity to create an unprejudiced picture of the historical past. Throughout the years of its work, testimonies by over 22,000 apartheid victims were published. Those whose rights were violated by the African National Congress, Pan Africanist Congress, and Inkatha Freedom Party were also heard. Over 7,000 amnesty requests were submitted, and about 1,500 of those were satisfied. The South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission is a crucially important case in the history of transitional justice, because it restored victims\u2019 dignity, created prospects of a shared future, and strictly demanded justice for all.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Truth Commissions established in Germany in 1992 had the goal of ensuring crime visibility and restoration of victims\u2019 dignity. After the Stasi archives were made public, it was tasked with investigating crimes of the communist regime in Germany. Its focus was not on the individual crimes, but on publicizing the victims\u2019 experiences.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Not all Truth Commissions were successful in achieving their goals, though. After all, their work is affected by funding, political situation, the government\u2019s weakness or strength, and much more. Since their mandate clearly sets the boundaries of their authority, the commissions were known to overlook important crimes (as was the case in Uganda and Chile). Sometimes, the idea of Truth Commissions is used in manipulations, e.g., when dictatorial regimes establish tokenistic commissions to clean up their image at the international level, as was the case in Uganda in 1974. In this context, Truth Commissions may provide the only possible, even if imperfect, space for civil society\u2019s resistance.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In some cases, the idea of establishing a Truth Commission was met with backlash, just like it was in the case of former Yugoslavia. Some countries refuse to create Truth Commissions: the governments of Mozambique and Angola declared they wanted to focus on preventing future violations rather than working through the past. At times, Truth Commissions\u2019 activities provoke violence. In Rwanda, governmental forces resorted to violence immediately after the commission left the country in January of 1993 (a new Truth Commission model was implemented in Rwanda, where the commission\u2019s work was funded exclusively by international non-governmental organizations, i.e., it was an autonomous agency). In Zimbabwe, the publication of the commission\u2019s report threatened to result in large-scale violence, so nobody has ever seen the report, apart from the government officials. When the Truth Commission\u2019s comprehensive report was published in Chile in 1990, three high-profile political assassinations followed, prompting the removal of the report from public access. Still, the recommendations contained therein were integrated into political practice.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Truth Commissions are an important instrument that shapes the picture of the future by working through the past. Although their mandate is limited and the external results of their work are not obvious, they establish an important value framework, shaping the long-term prospects in the context of human rights\u2019 essential significance. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Oksana Dovgopolova)<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                            \r\n                                                                        <div id=\"Working_Through_the_Past\"\r\n                                 class=\"glossary-definitions__list-item wysiwyg\">\r\n                                <h4><b>Working Through the Past<\/b><\/h4>\r\n                                <p><strong>Ger. <em>Vergangenheitsbew\u00e4ltigung<\/em><\/strong><br \/>\n<strong>Ukr. <a href=\"https:\/\/pastfutureart.org\/glossary\/#Working_Through_the_Past\"><em>\u041f\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0446\u044e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044f \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0443\u043b\u043e\u0433\u043e<\/em><\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The rational analysis of nature and of tragic events, memory of which continues to have an influence today. Working through the past presumes a creation of a critical view of past events, that should prevent any attempts to whitewash or silence the memory about past crimes.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of Working through the past was proposed by Theodor Adorno in his article \u201cWhat does Working through the Past Mean?\u201d published in 1963. In the text Adorno criticised attempts to justify, silence or obfuscate the crimes of Nazism. The philosopher claimed that there were attempts to get rid of the past by diminishing the crimes, using euphemisms or silencing. Traumatic events were being rid of their traumatism by settling the mutual balance of guilt (Germany is guilty for the death of a certain number of people, but the allied bombings also killed a certain number of people \u2013 hence we\u2019re even), by fighting the \u201cfeeling of guilt\u201d (borrowing of a psychoanalytical term in this context meant an attempt to show that in fact there was no guilt), and other means.<\/p>\n<p>Adorno criticised the claims that Germans were not ready for democracy, as infantilising: to him such claims were similar to attempts of teenagers to justify the violence they commit by their sheer belonging to a group of teenagers. Totalitarianism is based on an overblown nationalist arrogance, when an individual finds a surrogate pleasure in his or her identification with the whole. Collective narcissism pushes people towards crimes without permitting them to see their guilt.<\/p>\n<p>The question of working through the past arises in a state of democracy. It\u2019s a demand for utmost clarity about what has happened, a demand to oppose forgetting, an appeal to every single individual and his or her critical thinking. The idea of working through the past has become one of the cornerstones of memory studies and its application has been much wider than the analysis of German society and its relationship with the Nazi past. The conclusions drawn by Adorno are relevant for all societies that are trying to build its relationship with the past through the human rights framework.<em> (Oksana Dovgopolova)<\/em><\/p>\n                            <\/div>\r\n                                                                        <\/div>\r\n        <\/div>\r\n\r\n        <a href=\"#glossary-terms\" class=\"glossary-scroll__top-btn scroll-glossary-btn--js\">\r\n            &#8593;\r\n            <span class=\"visually-hidden\">\u041d\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0456\u043d\u043a\u0438<\/span>\r\n        <\/a>\r\n    <\/section>\r\n\r\n    \r\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":9,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_acf_changed":true,"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-3517","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"acf":[],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.5 - 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